EARTHING A BRIEF INTRODUCTION

WHAT IS EARTHING?
Earthing may be described as a system of electrical connections to the general mass of earth. The characteristic primarily determining the effectiveness of an earth electrode is the resistance, which it provides between the earthing system and the general mass of earth.

PURPOSE OF EARTHING
The earthing of an electrical installation has two purposes: To provide protection for persons or animals against the danger of electric shock. To maintain the proper function of the electrical system.

THE CHIEF REQUIREMENT OF GOOD EARTHING IS LOW SOIL RESISTIVITY.

Soil Resistivity (specific resistance of the soil) is usually measured in Ohm meters, one Ohm meter being the resistivity the soil has when it has a resistance of one Ohm between the opposite faces of a cube of soil having one meter sides. The other unit commonly used is the Ohm centimeter; to convert Ohm meters to Ohm centimeters, multiply by 100. Soil resistivity varies greatly from one location to another. For example, soil around the banks of a river has a resistivity in the order o f1.5 Ohm meters. In the other extreme, dry sand in elevated areas can have values as high as 10,000 Ohm meters.

THE EARTH PATH

The resistance of the earth path is determined, (1) by the resistivity of the soil surrounding the earth rod, (2) by its contact resistance between the earth rod and the surrounding soil and, (3) by the resistance of the earth rod and connecting conductors. When an electrical current passes into the soil from a buried earth rod, it passes from a low resistance metal into an immediate area of high resistance soil. Reference to Figures 1 & 2 depict what happens when a current flows from an earth rod into the surrounding earth. The areas of resistance can be described as being that of a number of sheaths of ever increasing diameters. The current path passes into the first sheath immediately adjacent to the earth rod and then into the second sheath which is of a larger cross-section with a greater area for current flow and, therefore, of lower resistance than the first sheath, and so on into a succession of sheaths or shells of ever increasing area and, because of this, of ever FIGURE 1 decreasing resistance. Eventually at a distance of three of four meters, the area of current dissipation becomes so large, and the current density so small, the resistance at this point is negligible. Measurements show that 90% of the total resistance around an earth rod is within a radius of three meters. However, it is this resistance at the interface where the current leaves the earth rod and flows into the main body of the earth that is important and explains why soil resistivity tests are very necessary in order to secure lowest overall resistance.

PRINCIPAL FACTORS AFFECTING SOIL RESISTIVITY

The factors chiefly affecting soil resistivitys are: 1. Type of Soil The soil composition can be: clay, gravel, loam, rock, sand, shale, silt, stones, etc. In many locations, soil can be quite homogenous, while other locations may be mixtures of these soil types in varying proportions. Very often, the soil composition is in layers or strata, and it is the resistance of the varying strata, especially at sub-soil level and lowers Where the moisture content is not subject to drying out, that is important in securing a good electrical earth. Refer Table 1 for typical soil resistivity values. 2. Seasonal Conditions The effects of heat, moisture, drought and frost can introduce wide variations in normal soil resistivity. Soil resistivity usually decreases with depth, and an increase of only a few percent of moisture content in a normally dry soil will markedly decrease soil resistivity. Conversely, soil temperatures below freezing greatly increase soil resistivity, requiring earth rods to be driven to even greater depths. See Table 2 for variations of soil resistivity with moisture content, and Table 3 for variations of soil resistivity with temperature.

3. Other Factors Other soil properties conducive to low resistivity are chemical composition, soil ionization, homogeneous grain size and even grain distribution - all of which have much to do with retention of soil moisture, as well as providing good conditions for a closely packed soil in good contact with the earth rod. In view of all the above factors, there is a large variation of soil resistivity between different soil types and moisture contents. Every earth is an individual and the only way to know that an earthing installation meets code requirements is to carry out proper resistance measurements on site.

Table 1

Resistivity Values for Several Types of Soils and Waters

Type of Soil or Water Sea Water Clay Ground well and spring water Clay and sand mixtures Shale, slates, sandstone, etc Peat, loam and mud Lake and brook water Sand Moraine gravel Ridge gravel Solid granite Ice Typical Resistivity ohms/m 2 40 50 100 120 150 250 2000 3000 15000 25000 100000 Usual Limit Wm 0.1 to 10 8 to 70 10 to 150 4 to 300 10 to 1000 5 to 250 100 to 400 200 to 3000 40 to 10000 3000 to 30000 10000 to 50000 10000 to 100000

Table 2

Variations of Soil Resistivity with Moisture Content

Moisture Content 0 2.5 5 10 15 20 30 Typical Value of Resistivity Wm % of Weight Clay mixed with sand Sand 10,000,000 1,500 3,000,000 430 50,000 185 2,100 105 630 63 290 42 -

Table 3

Variation of Resistivity with Temperature in Mix of Sand, Clay with Moisture Content of 15% by Weight
Temp. C 20 10 0 (water) 0 (ice) -5 -15 Typical Value of Resistivity Wm 72 99 138 300 790 3,300

There are a variety of test instruments available; however, they can be generally categorized as three-terminal of fourterminal test instruments.

1. Measuring Resistance
Figure 3 illustrates the test setup for measuring the resistance in Ohms between the installed earth rod and the general mass of earth. Refer to the instrument manufacturers manual on how to carry out the test. As a general rule, the distance between the earth rod under test and the current probe C is not less than 15 meters.

2. Measuring Soil Resistivity

Figure 4 illustrates the simple test setup for measuring soil resistivity. The test results give a resistivity profile of the earth beneath the surface. A four terminal instrument is required for soil resistivity. The probes are installed in a straight line with an equal spacing of a meters and inserted to a a depth of no more than /20 meters, i.e. For spacing of 2 meters, depth must be less than 100mm. Now keeping the centre position the same, resistance measurements are taken at increasing spacing (e.g. a=2mm, 3mm, 4mm etc.). Always ensure that the spacing between individual test probes is identical. The soil resistivity can be obtained from the following formula: r = 2p a R (Ohm meters) Where p = apparent soil resistivity a = spacing of probes in meters R = resistance value in Ohms (as indicated on the tester)

The use of the resistivity at probe spacing a meters as the average resistivity to a depth of a meters is a good enough approximation for most circumstances. From the calculations, a soil resistivity versus depth profile can be drawn as shown in Figures 5 and 6. The profile can be used to identify where low resistivity soil occurs so that appropriate installation techniques can be used. As the soil resistivity decreases with depth, deep driving earth rods are recommended. If the soil resistivity increases with depth, earth rods should be installed in parallel to obtain a lower resistance reading. Best results are achieved when the spacing of the parallel earth rods is greater than their depth.

TYPES OF EARTH RODS

At one time or another, all manners of conductor materials and shapes have been installed in the ground to provide an electrical earth. These materials range from cast iron plates, tubes, galvanized steel stakes, copper strip, metallic rod, wire and water pipe. Taking into account conductivity, high resistance to atmospheric corrosion and soil attack, ease and economy of installation and overall reliability, the steel rod clad with either copper or stainless steel has proven its superiority over all others. The clad steel rod is simple to install, its connection to the earthing system is easily made, and the installation is readily accessible for inspection and test. Additionally, by the use of deep driving techniques, extendible earth rods gave been developed to reach underlying strata of low permanent resistivity unaffected by seasonal drying.

STEEL CORE EARTH RODS HAVE THE BEST ATTRIBUTES

Electrically, a good earth electrode should have a low intrinsic resistance and be of sufficient section to carry high currents without damage when called upon. Mechanically, its physical properties should exhibit strength, have a rigid core for easy driving and be of durable, corrosion resistant material.

EARTH ROD LENGTH MORE IMPORTANT THAN ROD DIAMETER

Apart from considerations of mechanical strength, there is little advantage to be gained from increasing the earth rod diameter with the object in mind of increasing surface area in contact with the soil. The usual practice is to select a diameter of earth rod, which will have enough strength to enable it to be driven into the particular soil conditions without bending or splitting. Large diameter rods may be more difficult to drive than smaller diameter rods. The depth to which an earth rod is driven has much more influence on its electrical resistance characteristics than has its diameter. This is because it is not the actual area of contact with the soil that counts, so much as the total resistance area of the sheath or shell surrounding the earth rod. (Refer paragraph The earth path.)

The resistance of an earthing installation by an earth rod is calculated according to the following formula:
Where R = resistance of earth rod I Ohms r = soil resistivity in Ohm meters L = length of earth rod in meters d = diameter of earth rod in meters. The curve is based upon this formula where the earth resistance using a 25mm diameter earth rod is plotted against its length for soil having a resistivity of 10 Ohm meters. Note that if the diameter of the earth rod is halved (or doubled), the resistance is changed by some 12%. By comparison, it can be seen from the curve, a much more dramatic effect is obtained by increasing the length of the earth rod. The combined resistance of parallel rods is a complex function of the number of rods, rod diameter, rod length, rod separation, configuration of earth rods and soil resistivity. In most cases, fewer rods coupled together for deep driving will achieve a lower resistance than the same number in parallel. The earth rod spacing should not be less than the earth rod length to avoid overlap or resistance areas. This is because multiple earth rods, unless spaced well apart, so not follow the law of resistance in parallel as their earth conducting paths overlap - see explanation under earth path. Accordingly, the installation of multiple earth rods at sufficient distances apart takes up a large area, involves long cabling and many connections, all adding up to higher costs in time, labor and equipment.

COPPER vs. STAINLESS STEEL

The permanence of copper in most soils, its resistance to chemical attack, and its inherent low resistance, brings it into widespread use throughout the electrical industry in India and around the world. However, there are certain soils where it is inadvisable to use copper such as in tidal land salt marshes, swamps, and land filled with ashes, coke breeze and like materials. Stainless steel earth rods have a high resistance to both atmospheric and soil corrosion being clad with an austenitic grade stainless steel having chromium content of approximately 17%. Typical of the applications where stainless steel clad earth rods are favored over copper clad is: 1. Where the chemical composition of the soil reacts more unfavorably than copper - as per conditions described above. 2. Where the earthed item needs to be protected against galvanic attack and corrosion, e.g. lead sheathed cables, steel poles, etc. 3. Where the tougher sheathing of stainless steel will provide for a more durable and rigid earth rod better suited to hard driving conditions than its copper counterpart. Moreover, the cladding operation imparts an extra toughness to the stainless steel through work hardening.

SAFETY DATA SHEET

GROUND IMPROVING MATERIAL SAFETY DATA SHEET

1. IDENTIFICATION OF THE SUBSTANCE Product name: Product code: Use / description of product: GROUND IMPROVING MATERIAL GIM & BFC Granular Solid.

2. COMPOSITION / INFORMATION ON INGREDIENTS INGREDIANTS: Bentonite Hydrous aluminum silicates Graphite Conducting metal powders Bounding resins

NOTE:

Ground fill material is enhanced, activated and chemically modified homogenous mixture based upon bentonite made suitable for earthing purpose to increase the effectiveness of the earthing system.

3. HAZARDS IDENTIFICATION Main hazards: Other hazards: No significant hazard. Combustible. Exposure Limits (Dust): 10 mg/m3 total dust, 4 mg/m3 repairable dust

4. FIRST AID MEASURES (SYMPTOMS) Skin contact: Eye contact: Ingestion: Inhalation: There may be mild irritation at the site of contact. There may be irritation and redness. It is unlikely that this substance will be swallowed due to its physical properties. There may be irritation of the throat with a feeling of tightness in the chest.

4. FIRST AID MEASURES (ACTION) Eye contact: Inhalation: Bathe the eye with running water for 5 minutes. Consult a doctor. Remove casualty from exposure ensuring one's own safety whilst doing so.

5. FIRE-FIGHTING MEASURES Extinguishing media: Exposure hazards: Protection of fire-fighters: Water spray, Alcohol or polymer foam, Dry chemical powder, Carbon dioxide In combustion emits toxic fumes of carbon dioxide / carbon monoxide. Wear self-contained breathing apparatus.

SAFETY DATA SHEET

6. ACCIDENTAL RELEASE MEASURES Personal precautions: Environmental precautions: Clean-up procedures: disposal. Refer to section 8 of SDS for personal protection details. Do not create dust. Do not discharge into drains or rivers. Transfer to a suitable container. Refer to section 13 for suitable method of

7. HANDLING AND STORAGE Handling requirements: Ensure sufficient ventilation of the area. Avoid the formation or spread of dust in the air. Storage conditions: Store in cool, well ventilated area.

8. EXPOSURE CONTROLS / PERSONAL PROTECTION Occupational exposure limits TWA (8 hr exposure limit): 4mg.m3 Res Dust STEL (15 min exposure limit): 4mg.m3 Res Dust Engineering measures: Ensure there is sufficient ventilation of the area. Respiratory protection: Respiratory protective device with particle filter. Hand protection: Protective gloves. Eye protection: Safety glasses with side-shields. Skin protection: Protective clothing with elasticized cuffs and closed neck.

9. PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES State: Colour: Odor: Solubility in water: Viscosity: Relative density: Solid powder 75 mesh Light grey Odorless Insoluble Non-viscous 1890-1990 kg/m3

10. STABILITY AND REACTIVITY Stability: Conditions to avoid: Materials to avoid: Haz. Decomp. Products: Stable under normal conditions. Sources of ignition. Strong oxidizing agents. In combustion emits toxic fumes of carbon dioxide / carbon monoxide.

11. TOXICOLOGICAL INFORMATION Chronic toxicity: Routes of exposure: Danger of cumulative effects through inhalation. Refer to section 4 of SDS for routes of exposure and corresponding symptoms.

SAFETY DATA SHEET

12. ECOLOGICAL INFORMATION Mobility: Persistence and degradability: Bio accumulative potential: Other adverse effects: Non-volatile. Insoluble in water No data available. No data available. Negligible eco toxicity. Heavier than water

13. DISPOSAL CONSIDERATIONS Disposal operations: Disposal of packaging: D1 Tipping above or underground (e.g. landfill, etc.). R4 Recycling/reclamation of other inorganic materials Dispose of as normal industrial waste.

NB: The user's attention is drawn to the possible existence of regional or national regulations regarding disposal.

14. TRANSPORT INFORMATION ADR / RID IMDG / IMO IATA / ICAO

15. REGULATORY INFORMATION Hazard symbols: No significant hazard. Safety phrases: S22: Do not breathe dust. S26: In case of contact with eyes, rinse immediately with plenty of water and seek medical advice. S27: Take off immediately all contaminated clothing. S36: Wear suitable protective clothing. Note: The regulatory information given above only indicates the principal regulations specifically applicable to the product described in the safety data sheet. The user's attention is drawn to the possible existence of additional provisions which complete these regulations. Refer to all applicable national, international and local regulations or provisions.

16. OTHER INFORMATION Legal disclaimer: The above information is believed to be correct but does not purport to be all inclusive and shall be used only as a guide. This company shall not be held liable for any damage resulting from handling or from contact with the above product.

INSTALLATION METHOD
Normal soil:
Augur / Drill / Bore a hole of 6/8/10 inches in diameter for suitable depth of 2 or 3 meters length Mix backfill compound nicely with dug out soil. Throw handful of compound soil mix into pit. Remove plastic sleeve carefully from electrode. Place electrode at centre of pit. Start refilling empty space around electrode with backfill compound in small quantities. Then pour some water and poke the pit with a long wooden rod, to allow trapped air to escape. In this manner gradually continue refilling process till electrode is buried in the pit, up to the green patch painted on the top portion of electrode. Ensure that pit is not watery. Pack electrode with compound nicely and tightly, so that it stands firmly in pit. Pour a few buckets of water in and around the pit everyday for 3 days for system to set.

Rocky soil:
Dig a trench of 3and 11deep; Fill the entire pit with black cotton soil or normal soil, Pour enough water so that pit is full with water, Leave it for three days so that soil soaks up the water. Top up the pit with soil & fill the water if necessary. After two or three days this pit is sturdy and ready for earthing purpose. Now earthing electrode can be installed as per installation method for normal soil given earlier.

COMPLIANCE IF IS: 3043

IS 3043:1987 8.1

Description from Indian standards The resistance to earth of a given electrode depends upon the electrical resistivity of the soil in which it is installed. This factor is therefore important in deciding which of many protective systems to adopt. While the fundamental nature and properties of a soil in a given area cannot be changed, use can be made of purely local conditions in choosing suitable electrode sites and method of preparing the site selected to secure optimum resistivity.

Our comments We advise and recommend soil testing prior to earthing finalization to use the local soil conditions to best of means to get optimum resistivity.

8.1.1

Earth conductivity is, however essentially electrolytic in nature and is affected, by the moisture content of the soil and by the chemical composition and concentration of salts dissolved in the contained water. Grain size and distribution, and closeness of packing are also contributory factors since they control the manner in which the moisture is held in soil.

Our BACK FILL COMPOUND maintains adequate moisture percentage and takes care of all these aspect and astonishingly provides very good conductivity.

8.3

A site should be chosen that is not naturally well drained. A water logged situation is not however, essential unless the soil is sand or gravels as in general no advantage result from an increase in moisture content above about 20 percent. The abundance of water will not provide the soil with adequate conductivity. The value of high in the soil and in providing for solubility of ingredients moisture content so is advantageous in increasing solubility of natural elements which are artificially introduced to improve soil conductivity.

The even mixture of our BACK FILL COMPOUND maintains adequate moisture percentage and takes care of all these aspect and provides astonishingly very good conductivity.

8.5

If a greater degree of permanence is envisaged, earth electrodes packed in material such as BENTONITE are preferable. Bentonite or similar material may be used to advantage rocky terrain. Where holes are bored for insertion of vertical electrodes or where strip electrodes are laid radically under shallow areas of low resistivity overlaying rock strata, Bentonite packing will increase the contact efficiency with the general mass of ground.

We provide enhanced, PH balanced and chemically activated BENTONITE modified for grounding purpose , as back fill compound with our electrode.

8.6

At above about 20 percent moisture the resistivity is very little affected while below 20 percent the resistivity increase very abruptly, the normal moisture content of soils ranges from 10 percent in dry seasons to 35 percent in wet seasons and an approximate average may be perhaps 16 to 18 percent.

Our back fill compound is highly hygroscopic in nature and has a capacity to retain moisture up to 20 times of its volume. Due to this property the moisture % is maintained during dry seasons.

8.8.1

Approximately 90 present of the resistance between a driven rod and earth lies within a radius of about two meters from the rod. This should be kept in mind when applying the agents for artificial treatment of soil.

Our back fill compounds filled in vicinity of earthing electrode is highly conducting in nature and that helps to obtain lower earth resistance.

COMPLIANCE IF IS: 3043

8.8.3

The artificial treatment may be effective over a period of many years. However it is recommended that annual or bi annual measurements of earth resistivity should be made.

We wholly support this and base our earthing system on this phenomenon only.

9.1.1

To obtain a low overall resistance the current density should be as low as possible in the medium adjacent to the electrode which should be so designed as to cause the current density to decrease rapidly with distance from the electrode. This requirement is met by making the dimension in one direction large compared with those in the other two, thus a pipe or rod has much lower resistance than plate of equal surface area.

Our earthing system is so designed that used pipe of specified dimension as per INDIAN STANDARDS recommendations for best possible result.

9.2.1

The use of coke breeze as an infill is not recommended as it may result in rapid corrosion not only of the electrode itself but also of cable sheaths, etc, to which it may be bonded.

Our system totally eliminates the use of charcoal and salt.

9.2.1

It is apparent that the resistance diminishes rapidly with the first few feet of driving but less so at depths greater than 2 to 3 meter in soil of uniform resistivity. Pipes may be of cast iron of not less than 100 mm diameter, 2.5 to 3 m long and 13 mm thick. Such pipes cannot be driven satisfactory and may, therefore, be more expensive to install than plates for the same effective area. Alternatively, mild steel water-pipes of 38 to 50 mm diameter are employed.

We provide electrodes of 3 mts length to propagate this

9.2.1

We use from 38 mm dia pipe to 50 mm dia pipe as per the requirements set by INDIAN STANDARDS 3043:1983

9.2.1

The current loading capacity of a 1.2 x 1.2 m plate is of the order of 1600 A for 2 s and 1300 A for 3 s.

Our 50 mm diameter Model is tested for 20 KA for 1 sec for short current and 50 KA peak

9.3

Although electrode material does not affect initial earth resistance; Care should be taken to select a material that is resistant to corrosion in the type of soil in which it will be used.

We use of different types of HEAVY COATED pipes thus life of our system exceed more than 10 years in normal soil conditions.

10.3

Long duration loading due to normal unbalance of the system will not cause failure of earth electrode provided that the current density at the electrode surface doesnt exceed 40 A/mm2 limitation to values below this would generally be caused by the necessity to secure a low resistance earth.

We recommend earthing system of appropriate capacity, diameter and surface area as per application.

NOTES:

PRODUCT DISCRIPTION
This advance earthing system works in two folds: 1. The Earth electrode has Pipe in pipe technology concept that involves two low carbon mild steel pipes one inserted inside the other. Both the pipes are subjected to anti rust coating of 250 micron. The pipes are of Indian specifications 1239 medium class as prescribed by earthing manual of Indian standard 3043 that is 3.6 mm wall thickness. The empty space inside the electrode is pressure filled with high conductive crystalline mixture specially formulated and developed to create a minimum resistive path within the electrode.

2. Ground improving material is a back fill compound that is added in the soil around the
earth electrode within the sphere of influence of the electrode to increase the effectiveness of the earthing system. The compound being hygroscopic in nature it maintains the moisture level during seasonal imbalances. The compound is also very conductive hence eliminates the use of salt and charcoal and maintain the conductive nature of soil and the compound is also very swelling in nature thus it eliminates air pockets in the soil and increases the contact area with the electrode.

PRODUCT SPECIFICATION Diameter Length : :

3.2 mm 250 micron 25 X 6 X 100 10mm 481 mm2 33 mm 48 mm 63 mm 77mm

two meter or three meter as the case may be 3.2 mm 250 micron 40 X 6 X 100 10 mm 782 mm2 3.6 mm 250 micron 50 X 6 X 100 13 mm 1090mm2 3.6 mm 250 micron 50 X 10 X 100 13 mm 1588mm2

Wall thickness : Coating thick : Lug size :

Terminal hole : C.S. AREA :

TECHNICAL COMPARISON

Sr. No

chemical in pipe technology

Traditional Earthing System

There are two pipes one inside another, i.e., pipe- in- pipe technology

One G.I /C.I. pipe of particular diameter.

Safe earthing electrodes inner pipe is surrounded by non corrosive highly conducting mixture which acts as a barrier to corrosion and enhances the life of electrode because it not in direct contact with the soil.

The earth electrode is in direct contact with the soil thus gets rusted in few years.

It is scientifically designed to make it Corrosion Resistive System

Liable to fast corrosion, subsequent decay of earthing pipe/plate.

4 It has been proved at various sites that Ohmic values of PIP remains constant. Fluctuation of Ohmic value results in frequent maintenance of gadgets / machines and may endanger human life too.

5 Since SEE is surrounded by highly conductive soil so the charge dissipation through the electrode is very high and the current density across the electrode is very low which result in very high fault current, is sufficient to trip the fault relays. Distribution of short circuit current is less in terms of charge dissipation due to un homogenous mixture of salt and coke which differs from pit to pit, therefore it generates high potential at the pit which results in low fault current in comparison to required tripping circuit of fault protection.

6 Coating is adequate i.e., 250 microns

Galvanization is adequate as ordinary water pipes are used.

TECHNICAL COMPARISON

Practically no need to change due to its long life of more than 15 years

Need to be changed frequently

There is not much variation in Ohmic value due to very less corrosion over the time period.

Salt, charcoal is used as back fill, as salt is highly corrosive electrolyte, it corrodes G.I / C.I electrodes. Finally get the high Ohmic value.

The back fill compound is not soluble in water & it becomes part of the soil around the electrode.

Salt used will be washed away in rainy seasons and will be resulted as high Ohmic value.

10

It requires less space and time to install the earthing electrode.

It requires a large space and time to install the earthing electrode.

11

Modern technology with no additional cost.

Old technology with no additional benefits.

12

Wall thickness of pipe is of 4.2 mm thickness provides adequate mechanical strength during the time of fault.

Wall thickness of the pipe varies as ordinary water pipe are used

13

The cross sectional area is more than sufficient due to thick wall thickness thus leads to adequate current carrying capacity after the outer pipe corrodes.

There is no standardization as the material used are of varying nature and properties.

14

Maintenance free in nature due to additional Needs constant maintenance and look out due to hygroscopic chemicals used during moisture variation of nature and rapid climate change. installation

TECHNICAL DATA SHEET

Product Name General Description : Ground Improving Material (back fill compound, BFC)

: Is a high swelling specially formulated homogenous compound based upon Bentonite to create low resistivity in and around earth pit as desired. It provides a better conductivity and moisture retaining capacity and free from any toxic material hence safe to use as aquifers. The greatest advantage of this product is that it eliminates use of charcoal & salt and doesnt shrink or crack with time. : Based upon high swelling Bentonite Swells 20 % to is volume Low seepage rate High Moisture retaining Capacity High Conducting property Non corrosive Non toxic : : : : : : Light Grey 28 ml per 100 ml High 555 % 8-9 10% -11%

Product Features

Technical Specifications: Colour Swelling Volume Dispersion rate Plate water absorption pH Moisture content Chemical Analysis: Silica as Sio2 Alumina as Al2O3 Iron as Fe2O3 Calcium as CaO Carbon as C Copper as Cu

: : : : : :

35 % - 37 % 18 % - 20 % 4 % - 11 % 1%-3% 10 % - 14 % 3%-5%

Note: The property of GIM (ground improving material) largely depends upon quality of water used. In hard water properties may differ.