American Geographical Society

Marcel Duchamp's Art and the Geography of Modern Paris Author(s): James Housefield Source: Geographical Review, Vol. 92, No. 4 (Oct., 2002), pp. 477-502 Published by: American Geographical Society Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/4140931 . Accessed: 29/05/2011 13:57
Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of JSTOR's Terms and Conditions of Use, available at . http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp. JSTOR's Terms and Conditions of Use provides, in part, that unless you have obtained prior permission, you may not download an entire issue of a journal or multiple copies of articles, and you may use content in the JSTOR archive only for your personal, non-commercial use. Please contact the publisher regarding any further use of this work. Publisher contact information may be obtained at . http://www.jstor.org/action/showPublisher?publisherCode=ags. . Each copy of any part of a JSTOR transmission must contain the same copyright notice that appears on the screen or printed page of such transmission. JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact support@jstor.org.

American Geographical Society is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to Geographical Review.

http://www.jstor.org

The
92 VOLUME

Review Geographical
October 2002
MARCELDUCHAMP'S ART AND THE GEOGRAPHYOF MODERN PARIS*
JAMESHOUSEFIELD

4 NUMBER

ABSTRACT. Modern artist MarcelDuchamp'sconcept of the readymaderemains influential though controversial.I propose a new interpretationof the readymadesas a coherent series of works that re-create the landscape of Paris in the artist'sNew York City studio. Using techniques that parallel the conceptual and visual transformationsof space performed by and cartography by landscapepainting,Duchampcreateda personal,monumental,and threedimensional "map"by replacingParisianmonuments with small-scale objects. The readymades thus expand on the quest of modern artistsfor innovativewaysto representlandscape Marcel and, at the same time, offer geographersnew ways of seeing landscape. Keywords: modernart, monuments, Paris,readymade Duchamp,landscape, sculpture,urbangeography.

IlthoughMarcelDuchamp (1887-1968)ranksamong the most influentialartists of the twentieth century,geographershave paid scant attention to his work.' Much of Duchamp's reputation is based on his idea of the "readymade," mass-proa duced object that the artist did not make but selected (and, sometimes, modified). One of the most notorious of the readymadesremainshis 1917 Fountain,a common urinal that the artist signed with a pseudonym (Figure 1). Until the 1960s, the readymadeswere primarilyexhibited alone or in small groups. Only Duchamp's close friends and patronscould have seen groups of the readymadestogether in his New YorkCity studio, a context that gave the objects personal levels of meaning. Generationsof critics and artistsinterpretedthe readymadessolely as avant-garde acts of anti-art, works that replaced the notion of physical artistic craft with an intellectualact of choice. With the readymades,however,Duchamp engaged questions of geographyand landscapenot typicallyassociatedwith sculpture.This essay

* I am very gratefulto Denis Cosgrove,Diana Davis, LindaHenderson, RogerShattuck,and HellmutWohl, whose early and sustained input contributed immensely to the development of these ideas. Engaged responses from StephanieTaylor,audiences at Association of American Geographersconferences,and my students in advanced seminarshelped me clarifyaspects of this work. I must also thank Peter Brooker,Mary Gluck,Jon Hegglund, and AndrewThackerfor encouraging this project in conference panels of the Modernist StudiesAssociation. Southwest TexasStateUniversityprovidedtwo researchenhancementgrants that supported the writing and illustration
of this work, for which I offer grateful acknowledgment. To Paul Starrs and the journal's anonymous reviewers I send special thanks for their thoughtful comments and suggestions.

DR. HOUSEFIELD is an assistant professor of art history at Southwest Texas State University, San Marcos, Texas 78666-4616.
Copyright The Geographical Review 92 (4): 477-502, October 2002 ? 2003 by the American Geographical Society of New York

478

THEGEOGRAPHICAL REVIEW

will show that Duchamp used the readymadesto translate the cityscape of Paris into sculpturalform and to create a familiarlandscape in his transatlanticstudio. His readymadescontributedto modern art'sinterestin the urbanlandscapein ways that have not previouslybeen recognizedand offer geographersa case study of the that developedbetween modern art and gepotentially complex interrelationships ographyin the earlytwentieth century. Duchamp's readymadesengage analogy,humor, and shifts in scale to translate elements of the humanmade urban landscape into the interior landscape of the studio. Such shifts and translationsparallel the physical and conceptual transforor mations of landscapeinto cartographic transrepresentations, maps.Cartography lates physicaland social forms alike,using codes of referencethat remain internally consistent within a single map and throughout a series of relatedmaps.As parallels to other forms of landscape representation, therefore, maps render landscape or Historiansof cartogthrough specific coded representations, "visuallanguages." have pointed to veritable revolutions within modern cartographythat ocraphy curredas this tool of geographicalrepresentationwas used to quantifyand catalog material, physical, and social landscapes in new ways during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries.These new representationsincluded thematic maps in addition to the previouslyestablishedgenresof cartography(Harvey1980; Konvitz1987; Thrower1996). Frenchcartographersembraced new techniques for the late-nineteenth-century mass production of color lithographic imagery,much as did their colleagues in printmakingand the poster arts (Cate 1988). Furtherstudies of the transformationsof the new cartographiesof the fin de siecle period need to consider their ramificationsbeyond these technicaland disciareasof inquiry that remain to be explored pline-specific aspects.Interdisciplinary include cartography's relationshipwith the changingnotions of representationthat defined contemporaryvisual arts (Kagan2000). Advanced (avant-garde) artists of the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries sought to imbue their work with a personal sensibility that is the cultural heritage of romanticism. This distinguishes them from those survey artists who, practicing what Roger Balm referredto in the pages of this journal as "ExpeditionaryArt,"sought an apparently objective, impersonal, and transparent representation of the visible landscape A broad understandingof the intersection of art and geographywill en(2000). compass both subjective(avant-garde)and objective (documentaryor expeditionary) approaches,thereby encompassing the work of Duchamp and other modern
artists.2
DUCHAMP'S ART IN THE CONTEXT OF LANDSCAPE TRADITIONS

Although the subject of landscape was central to Duchamp's art, reappearing throughout his career, that importance has received limited critical attention. Duchamp's best-known work, The Bride Stripped Bare by Her Bachelors, Even (19151923; also called The Large Glass) (Figure 2), had links to the landscape that are revealed in the notebooks and sketches Duchamp published at regular intervals

DUCHAMP

AND

MODERN

PARIS

479

FIG.1-Marcel Duchamp'smost famous contribution to the art of the twentieth century was his notion of the "readymade" work of art. Such works challengedthe notion of the artistas craftsman, for Duchamp'sreadymades were mass-producedworks that he transformedthrough limited modifications. His most infamous work may be Fountain,a urinal he purchased,rotated, signed with a pseudonym,and submittedto a 1917exhibition in New YorkCity. MarcelDuchamp,Fountain,1917,PhiladelphiaMuseum of Art: The Louise and WalterArensberg Collection. ? 2001Artists Rights Society (ARS), Paris. (Photographreproduced New York/ ADAGP, courtesyof the PhiladelphiaMuseum of Art)

Bonk 1989;Duchamp 1999).Duchamp likenedthese (Sanouilletand Peterson1973; accompanyingnotes to a Baedeker'sguidebook or a Sears Roebuck catalog that might direct a viewer'sexperienceof TheLargeGlass(Kuh 1962). A 1959drawing, ColsAlitis (Bedridden Mountains)placesthe mechanicalforms of the bride and her bachelors among rolling hills; there they are powered by the electricallines that make this a modern landscape (Wohl 1977;Schwarz1997,819for the illustration). Modern elements distinguish TheLargeGlassfrom traditionallandscapepaintings in terms of both content and form. Recent scholarlyliteratureon Duchamp has shown the diversityof the forces that motivated his work while emphasizingthe multivalentquality of his art. The meanings of TheLargeGlassmay thus connect desireof its brideandbachsimultaneouslyto landscapeaesthetics,to the frustrated and to popular science of the early twentieth century (Henderson 1998). elors, Duchamp'swork challengedideas of landscape representationand artistic traditions simultaneously. as "Landscape," Denis Cosgrove has discussed extensively,"is not merely the is worldwe see, it is a construction,a composition of that world.Landscape a wayof the world"(1998, 13). Although landscapepaintinghas experiencedwavesof seeing

480

THE

GEOGRAPHICAL

REVIEW

FIG.2-Innovative materials,including oil, varnish, lead foil, lead wire, dust, and glass, come together in TheLargeGlass,a work that challengesthe definition of paintingand challengesinterpretation.Duchamp worked on it for many years His before declaringit "definitively unfinished." publishednotes and relatedworks connect TheLargeGlassto love and sexual desire but also to landscape,science, technology,and other subjects. MarcelDuchamp, TheBrideStripped BarebyHerBachelors, Even,also known as The LargeGlass,1915-1923, PhiladelphiaMuseum of Art: The Louise and Walter Paris. Collection.@2001ArtistsRightsSociety (ARS), New York/ ADAGP, Arensberg (Photographreproducedcourtesy of the PhiladelphiaMuseum of Art)

DUCHAMP

AND MODERN

PARIS

481

popularitysince ancient times, its social and commercialvalue playeda centralrole in the development of modern art in the late eighteenth and nineteenth centuries
(Clark 1949; Jensen 1994). Landscape was well suited to modern aesthetics that val-

ued the expressive,personal treatmentof a subject in which the artistmade the site
his own vehicle of expression (Green 1987, 70; 1990). Studies of landscape painting

in England,Germany,and the United Stateshave emphasized the culturalcontexts and, often, the specificallypolitical nature of landscape representation (Williams
1973; Barrell 1980; Novak 1980; Bermingham 1986; Daniels 1993; Warnke 1995; Luka-

cher 2002). Following the examples of John Rewald and Robert Herbert, studies of French landscape painting have focused attention on the site-specific nature
of the landscapes chosen for representation (Herbert 1962, 1988; Rewald 1973; Tucker 1982, 1989; Brettell and others 1984; House 1986, 1995; Moffett 1986; Brettell

199o). Despite the many values of such a focus, "site-specific interpretations tend to provide too simplistic a model of the complex process of imaging landscape, which is mediated by a variety of practices that constitute its particularity as a of modeof communication" 1993, readings French (Benjamin 295).Moresuccessful

haveaddressed complexplayof relationships the linkingtradilandscape painting art and tionsof artisticrepresentation, criticism, the economicusesof the landin tourism and urbandevelopment(Shiff 1984; Clark 1985; Green1990; Sutcliffe
1995) .3

official the marked theimpressionists' (1874groupexhibitions by During period art "modern" theirpositionat the headof an aestheticof self-consciously 1886), as to wasestablished, be inscribed such in historiesof modernart writtenat the turn of the twentiethcentury(Moffett1986).It is unsurprising, then,that landworks. earliest Church in animpressionist areamongDuchamp's scapes painted style showsthe villagein whichDuchampwas born and in whichhe still at Blainville livedwhen, in 1902 (at age fifteen),he paintedwith the loose brushstrokesand 3). paintersturnedto the (Figure Impressionist brightpaletteof Impressionism it Suchanemphaof Paris, oftenemphasizing overits humanoccupants. landscape shared aesthetic thanpeopleechoesthe generalized sis on placesrather landscape in Paris. and cohortof artists authors early-twentieth-century Writby Duchamp's as definedgeography "thescienceof Paul summarily ing in 1913, Vidalde la Blache and not the scienceof people"(quotedin Relph1976, 2). ForVidalde la places even the Blache, foundingfatherof modernFrench geography, humangeography human tracesof culture. Sucha place-oriented focusedon the physical necessarily and of humantransformation the landscape the cultural emphasized geography and earlyFrench of humanactivity.4 Impressionist painting geography products
in share a view of the landscape that might be called "depopulated," which even culture and civilization can be forces independent of living beings. Duchamp and his early-twentieth-centurycolleagues challengedthemselves to engage new ways of depictingthe pace and tone of modern urban life. These modern artists'quest to find new means to reimaginethe city through their art are important to the history of art and to geography.

482

THE GEOGRAPHICAL

REVIEW

FROM MONUMENTAL PARIS TO THE READYMADE

Modern Pariswas designed to be a city of monuments. Its appearancedeveloped during the Second Empire (1852-1870),under the direction of Napoldon III and Georges Haussmann. In 1842, before proclaiming himself EmperorNapoleon III, ... wrote,"Iwantto be a secondAugustus because Augustus Louis-NapoleonBonaparte a city of marble" in Pinkney 1958,3). In Paris,Napoldon III ... made Rome (quoted emulated the Augustantransformationof Rome from agriculturalcapitalinto imdemolished entire neighborhoods perial capital;the resulting"Haussmannization" to make room for new, tree-linedboulevardsand wide avenues.Haussmann'splans called for monuments to be set into the fabricof Parisas if they were gemstones set in jewelry.His grandboulevardsfocused attention on existing monuments (the Arc de Triomphe),expandedand completed others (the Vend6me Column), and made way for new monuments (the PalaisGarnier,or ParisOpera). Donald J. Olsen has pointed out that Paris,like London and Vienna, "hadlong contained monuments. Only in the nineteenth century did they try to becomemonuments" (1986,9). Forthe tourist or the pilgrim,monuments themselves,such as the VietnamVeterans Memorial and Lincoln Monument in Washington,D.C., or the Eiffel Tower in and the Basiliquedu Sacrd-Coeur Paris,may createthe urbanlandscapeby guidand focusing the visitor's experience of the city. The monuments' importance ing not only rivalsthat of physicalgeographicalelements but may surpasstheir importance in shaping the city. Maps such as the Nouveau Paris Monumentalsimultaneously displaythe city as a monument and as a collection of monuments (Figure Paris UniversalExposition used such maps to guide 4). Touristsvisiting the 1900oo them as they sought out the city's key cultural products.The power of these maps to shapea visitor'sexperienceof the urbanlandscapeof Pariscontinuestoday.Similar tourists' maps are distributedfree of cost by the major Parisiandepartment stores for their advertisingvalue. On these, the sponsoring store becomes a monument that is the visual rivalof the city'schurches,monuments, and museums. Such maps build on the historical traditions of picture maps and maps presentingbird's-eye views of towns (Harvey1980). Likepicture maps of the monuments of Rome prized by pilgrims,maps of modern Parisoffer tourism as a pilgrimagethat is both secular and sacred,the latter punctuated by churches old and new. These representations of Parisparallelthe representations London that became popularduring its tranof sition to a modern urban force a century before;maps of both cities highlight the persistenceof old monuments and urban forms alongside the proliferationof new ones (Arnold 1999;Gilbert1999;Peltz 1999).Although they use rational elements, such as the cartographictechnique of isometric projection,maps like the Nouveau ParisMonumentalwillfullyrearranged orientation of the monuments they repthe resentedin orderto displaythe most recognizableview of each. Mapmakersshifted the scales of the monuments, enlargingthem to indicate their relativeimportance or shrinkingthem to conform to space limitations. A detail from the 19oo map NouveauParisMonumentalshows the EiffelTower and the FerrisWheel rising above the grounds of the UniversalExposition (Figures

DUCHAMP

AND

MODERN

PARIS

483

FIG.3-By the late nineteenth century,landscapewas establishedas one of the subjects most central to modern art. Duchamp's earliest paintings were impressionist-stylelandscapes like this one, which shows a church in the village of his birth. At the time this was within 50 completed,the ImpressionistpainterClaudeMonet lived at his gardenin Giverny, kilometers of Duchamp'shome. Impressionistpainting was thus linked geographicallyto the regionof Normandyand contributedto a perceivedNorman culturalheritagethat could include modern art. MarcelDuchamp,Church Blainville,1902,Philadelphia at Museumof Art:The Louiseand WalterArensbergCollection. @ 2001Artists Rights Society (ARS), New York/ ADAGP, Paris. (Photographreproducedcourtesyof the PhiladelphiaMuseum of Art)

484

THE GEOGRAPHICAL

REVIEW

PR WE DANS PARM ITINfRAIR'E D L'TRANGFR TIQUE

FIG.4-Maps such as this were as popular in fin de si&cle Parisas they are in the Paris of tourists today. Their cartographyemphasizesthe major streets,visible to approximatescale and in correct projection.They emphasizethat the city is a collection of monuments, both a memorial landscape and a site of tourism and consumption. The scale,location, and orientationof the monuments themneeds. selves are manipulated,subjugatedto the cartographer's Nouveau Paris Monumental, circa 1900oo. (Photograph reproduced courtesy of the Bibliothdque Nationale de France)

5 and 6). BeforeleavingParis,Duchampbeganhis seriesof readymades selecting by BottleRack,a hardware storeobjectsthat recalledthe towerand the wheel. His 1914 issue device on which to drywine bottles for reuse,was among the firstreadymades, transformedfrom its utilitarianorigins by the artist'sselection and signing of the object (Figure7). Its metal forms echo the cast-iron structureof the EiffelTower,a positive symbol of the city of Parisby Duchamp'stime. Although Duchamp'scontemporariescelebratedthe tower'smodernity and its beauty,when it was built in 1889it was derided by many who took offense at its unconcealed use of modern materialsand the ugliness they perceivedin its forms. Leon Bloy called it an iron "Towerof Babel"in 1889,deriding it as "a superb piece of hardware" ("une quincaillerie superbe") (quoted in Burton2001, 195). Duchamp'sBottleRacktransformed a household object-a piece of hardware-into a sculptureof equallystrangemetal forms. The link between BottleRackand the EiffelTowerwas strengthenedby the readymade's companion in Duchamp'sstudio, BicycleWheel(Figure8). Mounted on a stool, the wheel has visual interest that the artist likened to the pleasureof

DUCHAMP

AND MODERN

PARIS

485

lies

~ ~

;"

VOWJ

,21 to-lip-~j

t. ~~

3
1wbQd
~rti161~-

wVN4
kj*
w

41 *Al~j~
i

FIG.5-A detail from the Nouveau ParisMonumentalshows how the scale of the monuments depicted could reflect their relativeimportance.The EiffelToweris especiallylarge, dwarfingthe nearbyFerrisWheel and the militaryparadeground of the Champ de Marsbelow. Detail from the NouveauParisMonumental,circa19oo. (Photographreproducedcourtesyof the BibliothequeNationale de France)

486

THE

GEOGRAPHICAL

REVIEW

FIG.6-Symbols of modern Paris,the EiffelTowerand the FerrisWheel rise above the Champ de Mars and the fairgroundsof the UniversalExposition on a hand-tinted postcard from about 19oo. Locatednear the EiffelTowerat 74, avenuede Suffren,the FerrisWheel offeredvisitors moving views of the city from various heights. A Baedekerguide from 1904 offers an index of its popularityas a tourist attraction:It remainedopen continuously from 1:oo P.M. until midnight in the summer and in from 1:ooP.M. until 6:00 P.M. the winter.Its admission fee (1 franc;half that on Sundays)was comparableto the price of a cup of coffee or a glassof champagnein an averagecaf6(though more expensive than a beer). In the foreground,the word "CONCERT" advertisesthe Theatre-Concertde la Grande Roue, which offered popular entertainment outdoors in summer and indoors in winter (Baedeker1904,39, 40). Postcard,circa1900.Collection of the author.

watchinga flickeringfire.Its spinning form also recallsthe FerrisWheel.By finding minimal-scalesubstitutes for sites in monumental Paris,Duchamp'sreadymades engage an aesthetic approach that parallelsthe modernist concept of the object and a "map"of Paris that portrait.5Duchamp effectivelyestablisheda "portrait" its landscapein his Paris and New YorkCity studios. From these first represented readymadeson, the meaning of the objectswould be context specific.They could be seen together only in the personal realm of Duchamp'sstudio or the carefully controlledreproductionsof his work that he issued himself. When Duchamp left Parisfor New YorkCity in 1915, had alreadycompleted he three readymades. arrivedin a city characterized its skyscrapers, which the He of by newestand tallestwas the neo-Gothictowerof the WoolworthBuilding.He scrawled a note to himself that he laterpublished:" [F]ind [an] inscriptionfor the Woolworth Building as a ready-made"(Sanouillet and Peterson 1973, 75; Duchamp 1999, 8). Most scholarsacceptthat the inscriptionwas sought as if it were to be addedto the WoolworthBuildingitself (Adcock1985). an inscriptionon an objectin his stuYet

DUCHAMP

AND

MODERN

PARIS

487

FIG. 7-Duchamp told an interviewer," [M]yreadymades have nothing to do with the objet trouvebecause the so-called 'found object' is completely directedby personaltaste.Personaltaste decidesthat this is a beautifulobject and is unique. That most of my ready-madeswere mass produced and could be duplicatedis another important difference.In many cases they were duplicated,thus avoidingthe cult of I uniqueness,of artwith a capital'A.' considertastebad or good-the greatestenemy of art.In the case of the ready-mades,I tried to remain aloof from personal taste and to be fully conscious of the problem" (quoted in Kuh1962,91-92). versionafterlost MarcelDuchamp,BottleRack,1961 original of 1914,PhiladelphiaMuseum of Art: The Louiseand WalterArensbergCollection.@ 2001Artists Rights Society (ARS), New York/ ADAGP, Paris. (Photographreproduced courtesyof the Philadelphia Museum of Art)

FIG. 8-The spinning form of Duchamp's readymade BicycleWheelechoes that of the Ferris Wheel in Paris. Marcel Duchamp, Bicycle Wheel, 1964 version after lost
original of 1913, Phila-

delphia Museum of Art: The Louise and Walter Arensberg Collection. ? 2001 ArtistsRightsSociety (ARS), New York /
Paris. (PhotoADAGP,

graph reproduced courtesyof the Philadelphia Museum of Art)

488

THE GEOGRAPHICAL

REVIEW

dio would haveintroduceda substitute for the building into an interior artistic space,much as the readymade sculpture ParisAir did four yearslater. Paris Air, the modified ampoule purchased in 1919 (Figure 9), was the fullest developmentof ideasDuchamp had begun with the firstreadymades in 1913.It is particularlyemblematicbecauseit bringspartof Parisbackto New YorkCityin a veryphysical way.Tocoman plete this workDuchamppurchased ampoule of serum in a Parisianpharmacy, then asked the pharmacist to empty the vessel and resealit. The rethe sultingworkeffectively transported intangibleand fragileair of Parisback to Duchamp's studio. Its origins as a pharmaceutical ampoule link it to the second readymade, titled Pharmacy, FIG.9-To prepare the readymade Paris Air, made in 1914. To make PharmacyDuDuchamppurchaseda serum ampoule from a Pachamp added two spots of color-one risianpharmacy. had the pharmacistempty its He red,one green-to an inexpensiveprint contents and reseal the ampoule. Having thus of a wooded scene, subtly transformclosed true Parisair inside, Duchamp could then bring home a bit of Paris as a gift for his patron ing the banallandscapeimagewith refWalter This demonstrates Arensberg. explicitlythe erence to the jars of colored water set possibility that readymadescould representelein the windows of Frenchpharmacies. ments of the Parisianlandscapeas Duchamp organized them in his studio. Only through the titles'referencesand MarcelDuchamp, ParisAir, 1919,Philadelphia a viewer's understandingof culturally Museumof Art:The Louiseand WalterArensberg specificaspectsof Frenchtraditiondid Collection. @ 2001 Artists Rights Society (ARS), workssuch as these takeon any imporNewYork/ ADAGP, Paris.(Photographreproduced tance for the viewer.The lack of visual courtesyof the PhiladelphiaMuseum of Art) interestthatthe readymades themselves offer is consistent with Duchamp'sdesire to shift modern art away from a purely visual tradition (which he decried as "retinalart") toward conceptual concerns, returningart to "the service of the mind" (quoted in Tomkins1996,64). aestheticimportance,turningawayfrom Duchampdiscountedthe readymades' the Kantianaesthetic tradition that defines art objects as "disinterested," nonutilitarian,and self-sufficient,requiringno furthercontext or explanation(Kant1951). By contrast,in the intellectualizedaestheticproposed by Duchamp'sreadymades, the meaning of the works dependson the context of their exhibition as much as on the objects themselves.When first displayedin the artist'sstudio, the readymades werestudio paraphernalia, personalobjectswhose importancemost viewerswould

DUCHAMP

AND MODERN

PARIS

489

not recognize.On exhibit in a museum or gallery,their context-and thereforetheir meaning-changes. Long afterthe first readymadeswere lost, Duchamp supervised the meticulous production of series of reproductions (Schwarz 1997).The most notorious of the readymadeswas Fountain,a urinal selected for displayin the Society of IndependentArtists'open exhibition of 1917(Figurei). Duchamp, a member of the society'ssupervisorycommittee,submittedit underthe pseudonym"R.Mutt," with which he signed the urinal. Although iconoclastic, Fountain responded directly to the society's declared mission to remove contemporary art from earlier traditions of judgment and taste by acceptingartworksfrom anyone who paid the exhibition fee. In this historically specific context, Duchamp's Fountain took its meaning from the society's response to the work (the society exhibited it not with the rest of the art but beyond the exhibition space, where it was concealed by a curtain) (Camfield1989).Fountainrevealedthe society'sinabilityto follow its stated missions and goals to their logical conclusion.
UNEASY MONUMENTS: DUCHAMP's FOUNTAIN AND THE BASILIQUE DU SACRE-COEUR

Fountain'srounded forms echo those of a particular monument of the Parisian the landscape,the Basiliquedu Sacre-Coeur(Figurelo). Begun in 1871, basilicawas not consecrateduntil 1919, its form was recognizablelong before Duchamp though selected his Fountainin 1917.The history of the Sacr6-Coeuris a case study in the culturalgeographyof modern Parisand of monumental urbanconstructionin general (Harvey1985; Jonas2000;Mitchell2000; Burton2001).Althoughits forty-eightyear period of construction (1871-1919) coincides with the development of

modernism, the Sacre-Coeurhas had a contested relationshipwith Parisand with modern art. The geographer David Harvey has contributed much to the critical as understandingof Sacr&-Coeur an uneasy monument, a site that has remained miredin culturalconflict since its inception (Harvey1985).The basilicawas built on a site where, during the political turmoil of the ParisCommune (1871),police forces massacredcitizens of Paris who had taken to the streets to protest the social and political circumstancesthat followed the Franco-PrussianWar.Pledging to build the basilicain a politicallyreactionaryact of "atonement," "NationalVow of the the SacredHeart"responded to this period of war. Raymond Jonas has chronicled the history of the concept of the SacredHeart and its role in the life of modern Parisand of Catholicism across France.Although the cult of the SacredHeart has its origins in the reactionaryroyalistpolitics of the prerevolutionary period, Jonassees the modern phenomenon of pilgrimageto the basilica as parallelto, and consistent with, the secular pilgrimagesto world's fairs and the caf6concerts,cabarets,and other celebratedentertainmentsof Montmartre Amid this fin de sidcleclimate of Bohemian entertainmentthe basilica"so (2000). animatedlocal activitythat,overtime, Montmartrecame to depend upon the SacrdCoeur as much as the Sacrd-Coeur depended on it" (2001, 111). To this day the Sacr&-

Coeur retains its uneasy position as a monument built during the modern period,

490

THE GEOGRAPHICAL

REVIEW

prosperingunder modern engineeringand construction techniques,yet delivering reactionaryand premodern architectural,religious and political messages to the city of Paristhat expandsbeneath it. with the twentiethcentury,many Despite (or becauseof) this uneasyrelationship as artistsweredrawnto the Basiliquedu Sacr&-Coeur a modern subject.PabloPicasso and many other modern artistspainted this massive structureoverlookingthe city When Duchamp firstcame to Parishe fromthe artists'communitiesof Montmartre. livedwith his brotheron the Montmartrehill, in the shadowof the "whiteelephant," as the structurehas been called.Becauseof the size and the cost of the projectit was not completeduntil manyyearsafterthe deathof its designingarchitect,PaulAbadie (1812-1884) (Abadie1984;MNMF 1988).Throughout the many years of its construction its oversizedproportionsand white exteriorinvitedcriticismfrom manycamps. Critics condemned the basilica for its inappropriatepastiche of styles. Even today Those who negotiate the Parisiansmake light of its domes as "thebreastsof Paris." of Parisremarkon the ideallocation that the Sacr&-Coeur occupies:From geography its steps one can take in the panorama of the city below. Walkingin Paris,one is frequentlysurprisedby repeatedglimpses of the basilicarising in the distance. Deassumedits placeamong the monuments spiteits contestedidentity,the Sacrd-Coeur of modern Pariseven before it was completed. urinal,with its smooth, white surface,is a smallDuchamp'sindustrial-porcelain scaleversionof the basilica.Fountainpunninglyechoes the distinctiveform and color before1920,Duchamp of the Sacr&-Coeur. disappeared Althoughthe originalFountain later issued carefullycraftedreproductionsof the readymade,including standardsized urinalsand miniatureversionssuch as those he placedat the centerof his "portable museum," Box in a Valise(Botte-en-Valise) (Bonk 1989;Camfield1989)(Figure 11).Before it disappeared,Fountainmade its temporaryhome in Duchamp'sNew YorkCity studio, wherehe mounted it at ceiling level (Figure12). Within his studio, the location of Fountainmakesa spatialreferenceto the northern,hilltop setting of Like the Sacr&-Coeur. the great white basilica perched on the Montmartrehilltop, Duchamp's urinal becomes a point of organizational reference for the other readymades.Justas the basilica can orient the travelerin Paris,Fountainprovides and context for the readymadehat rack (Porte-Chapeau) snow shovel (InAdvanceof theBroken them within the space of Duchamp'sstudio. Arm) by orienting WhereasFountainis a visual pun on the Sacre-Coeur,Hat Rackmakes playful linguistic referenceto another northerlypoint within Paris,the city gate known as Visual and verbal puns were central to Duchamp's art the "Portede la Chapelle." throughout his career (Bauer1989). His emphasis on linguistic play is a reminder and that the artist,the cartographer, the geographerall engage in acts of representation that are inherentlyacts of translation.Duchamp told an interviewer, a You forme,wordsarenot merely meansof communication. know,punshavealof both a waysbeenconsidered lowformof wit,butI findthema source stimulation of of attached the soundandbecause unexpected to because theiractual meanings of words.Forme,thisis an infinitefieldof joy-and it's interrelationships disparate

DUCHAMP

AND MODERN

PARIS

491

looks over the city of FIG.io-From its seat atop the Montmartrehill the Basiliquedu Sacr&-Coeur monumentalof the churchesof Paris. the geogAs Paris.The Sacr6-Coeur the most self-consciously was rapherDavid Harveyhas shown (1985),its awkwardmonumentalityis matchedby the complexityof associationsthat the site arousedeven beforeconstructionof the basilicabegan. Duchamp'sFountain this by (Figure1) paysironichomageto the Sacr&-Coeur, essayargues.(Photograph the author,2002)

Sometimes orfivedifferent of meaning four levels comethrough. always athand. right Ifyouintroduce familiar coma wordintoanalienatmosphere, havesomething you to distortion painting, in and new.(Quotedin Kuh parable something surprising
1962, 88-89)

Verbalpuns highlight the simultaneous fixity and frivolity of linguistic rules:For instance, if the Frenchword for horse, cheval,takes plural form as chevaux,why shouldn't chapellebe made plural as chapeaux? The Porte de la Chapelle is thus concreteform in Porte-Chapeaux, which hangs to the "east" the northerly of given Fountainin Duchamp'sstudio. To the "west"of Fountainin the studio photographhangs a snow shovel, the titled InAdvanceof theBroken Arm.Despite its violent and distract1915 readymade its gentlycurvingform createsa complexvisual-verbal pun on the name of ing title, the Parisianvillage of Courbevoie."Courbevoie" translatesfrom Frenchto English as "curvedway"or "curvedpath."In a visual pun on the place-name, the snow shovel embodies the name "Courbevoie" becauseits shape marksa path that is first then curvesgentlythrough its blade.When Duchamp came to the United straight,

492

THE GEOGRAPHICAL

REVIEW

series boxesthatcontained of miniatures hispaintings, of and ited-edition sculptures, notes, drawings, allmechanically with attention detail. thecenter theboxwereaffixed to At of reproduced scrupulous of Paris Item(a (top to bottom)sculptural reproductions threereadymades: Air,Traveler's Folding and At cover anUnderwood for typewriter), Fountain. the rightsitshis infamous readymade folding a of with and Withinthese L.H.O.O.Q.,reproduction the MonaLisa"corrected" moustache goatee. in also the Untilhe beganto boxesDuchamp included photographs showing readymades his studio. in of Box was makethree-dimensional reproductions hissculptural readymades the195os, in a Valise the primary placein whichone couldseeallof his readymades together. Paris. andWalter Collection. 2001 Artists New / (ARS), York ADAGP, (PhoArensberg Rights Society ? of Museum Art) of reproduced tograph courtesy the Philadelphia
MarcelDuchamp,Box in a Valise(Boite-en-Valise), 1941,PhiladelphiaMuseum of Art:The Louise

a FIG.11-Duchamp createdhis own portablemuseum with Box in a Valise(Boite-en-Valise), lim-

invenin for States 1915 sawsnowshovels the firsttime;theywereanAmerican he translate ideaof a snow the tion not soldin France. How,then,mighta Frenchman That shovel(withits gentlycurved, not pointed, but blade)intohis native tongue? suchobjects American of couldrefersubtlyto French andmonuments sites origin The snow shovel's title as a would havehad particular relevance Duchamp. for In Arm,addspoeticlevelsof meaning. Suspended readymade, Advance theBroken of in of monufromtheNewYork studioceiling thecontext theseotherminimized City For the ordinary rackand snow shoveltakeon new significance. the hat ments, in to quietly, a remembered youngFrenchman the UnitedStatestheycouldrefer, of landscape home.
MONUMENTS, POWER,AND MEMORYPLACES

mark Monuments markspecificsitesand also,throughtheirmemorial qualities, in time.Thustheyareeffective forces the creation cultural of landscapes (Cosgrove and Daniels1988;Schama Noraand a teamof 1995;Cosgrove 1998, 1999). Pierre or scholars recently have this anchored notionof memory places, lieuxdemermoire,

DUCHAMP

AND

MODERN

PARIS

493

FIG. 12-Photograph of Duchamp'sNew YorkCity studio at 33 West 67th Street,circa 1917-1918. Duchamp may be the ghostly figureseated on a chest in the center;hanging Arm (faintly from the ceiling, left to right, are the readymadesIn Advanceof theBroken visible in the foreground),Fountain,and Hat Rack. MarcelDuchamp and Henri-PierreRoche,Duchamp's PhilaStudio,circa 1917-1918, delphia Museum of Art: The Marcel Duchamp Archive,Gift of Jacqueline,Paul and PeterMatissein memory of their mother,AlexinaDuchamp.? 20ooArtistsRightsSociParis.(Photographreproducedcourtesy of the PhiladelNew York/ ADAGP, ety (ARS), phia Museum of Art)

494

THE GEOGRAPHICAL

REVIEW

in the collective French memory through a series of monuments that continue to shape personal and national consciousness in France today (1996-1998). Yet the very idea of the monument is dominated by sculptural and social conventions. Once established, the conventions of the monument retained an authority that has rarely been questioned. Why should the Column of Trajan in ancient Rome, or the Vend6me Column in the heart of Paris (Figure 13), take an architectural element, the column, as their form? Practices, conventions, and traditions make this not only acceptable but expected, as the antiquity of the concept lends it prestige and continuity within the Western tradition. Because of its visibility and political associations, the Vend6me Column became a target of Parisians' iconoclastic wrath when they pulled it down in 1871during the revolutionary period of the Commune. Targeting a Napoleonic monument, they expressed their anger against the government of Emperor Napoleon III. After his 18o05victory at Austerlitz, Napoleon I had had the column cast from the 1,250 melted-down cannons captured from his vanquished opponents. That city gave the name to a Paris railroad station that still operates today, the Gare d'Austerlitz, so named because trains traveled from there toward Austerlitz. Choosing the architectural element of a framed French window, Duchamp's readymade, La Bagarre d'Austerlitz (Figure 14), refers to the train station and the Napoleonic battle at the same time. In another act of domestication of the modern monument, its self-importance is deflated: The Napoleonic victory is reduced to a barroom brawl, or bagarre, and a lesser architectural element ironically replaces the heroic Vend6me Column. Duchamp's active importation of "monuments" into the Parisian landscape he created in his studio recalls historical precedents in which monuments conferred meaning, power, and prestige to a site. When Charlemagne built his palace at Aachen he placed there a copy of the Etruscan bronze statue of a she wolf, the lupa, "Mother of the Romans," that was part of the collection of marvels gathered outside the Lateran palace in Rome (the first papal residence). As the geographer Asa Boholm has noted, Charlemagne thus effects a transference of cultural power as he introducesa new and forcefulobjectwith stronginherentconnotationsthat arefairly resistantto change of context. The environment into which such an object is introduced will absorbmeanings from its presenceand its broadermeaning will thereby be transformed.The presenceof the statue of the she-wolf at Aachenconveysa symbolic equation between Rome and Aachen and, as a logical consequence,between the ideal office of world emperor (with his seat in Rome) and Charlemagneas an actual person (with his seat in Aachen). (1997, 261-262)6 Unlike these imperial examples, Duchamp's act was personal. By installing variants of Parisian monuments in his studio he created a nexus of power and memory that linked Paris with New York City. Yet the very functionality of the objects Duchamp chose for his readymades turned the idea of the monument on its head because, "in contrast to other edifices, monuments are not built for functional ends" (Boholm 1997, 251).

DUCHAMP

AND MODERN

PARIS

495

FIG. 13-The Vend6meColumn was erectedin 1810to markNapolkon's victory in the Battle of Austerlitzfive yearsbefore. It stands at the center of the PlaceVend6me, a squarein Paris that is a hallmarkof late-seventeenth-century urbandesign.The RomanauthorPliny,in Natural History(XXXIV.xii.27), noted that "the use of columns is to raise [a statue] above other mortals"(quoted in Rykwert1996,363 and 515,no. 74). Napoleon raised a statue of himself dressedas a Roman Caesaratop this column decoratedwith bronzereliefs (basedon those of the Column of Trajanin Rome). Although the original was replacedby subsequentstatuary in the nineteenth century,Napoleon III set a replicaof the figureatop the column. In 1871 the statue was torn down during the Commune, to be restoredby the Third Republicwith another replicaof the Napoleonic figure.(Photographby the author,2002)

496

THE GEOGRAPHICAL

REVIEW

d'Austerlitz. FIG. 14-Duchamp deflatesthe lofty pretensionsof the Vend6meColumn in LaBagarre Its title refersto specific geographicallocations at the same time that it is a monument to a punning "Battleof AustereBeds." MarcelDuchamp,La Bagarre ArtistsRightsSociety d'Austerlitz, 1921, Staatsgalerie Stuttgart. 20oo1 Paris.(Photographreproducedcourtesyof the Staatsgalerie New York/ ADAGP, (ARS), Stuttgart)

DUCHAMP

AND MODERN

PARIS

497

Duchamp'sreadymadesset the stage for the artist,in a theatricalsense, by providing a Parisianbackdropin his New YorkCity studio. Noting the importance of the nineteenth-centuryart of the diorama as an indicator of the changing modern concept of landscape, J. B. Jacksonwrote that it "marksthe appearanceof a new kind of drama-one which takesplace in a domestic interior and involvesdomestic and psychologicalproblems,hidden from the public world"(1980, 75). Duchamp's arrangementof the readymadesto createa landscapewithin his studio complicates this notion by introducing a space that is both public and private.As a meeting place for fellow artistsand patrons,Duchamp'sstudio functioned as a semiprivate artist.His FerrisWheel site in which he performedhis identityas a Franco-American / BicycleWheelon the floor was as readilyat home in New YorkCity or Chicagoas in item of plumband elevatedto the ceiling,was anAmerican-made Paris, his Fountain, that could recallthe basilicaperchedatop the Montmartrehill. A complex relaing tionship is establishedin which American-madeobjectsstand in for Frenchnational treasures.In his studio, Duchamp could be in Paris and New YorkCity simultaneously.Such a situation hinges on the possibility (demanded by avant-gardeartists) that modern artworks foster multiplicity of meanings instead of singular interpretations. Linda Henderson'sencyclopedic investigation of The LargeGlass and related works is one of the few publications to addresslandscape issues in Duchamp'sart while emphasizingthe diversityof meaningsthat coexist within these works (1998). Elements that take mechanical form in The LargeGlass are made recognizablein Duchamp's final work, in which landscape plays a central role. Unveiled posthumously,that work is a sculpturalinstallationpoeticallytitled Given:1othe Waterfall,
20

the Illuminating Gas (1946-1966) (d'Harnoncourt and Hopps 1973; Duchamp

1987).7Given ... can be seen only by a lone viewer who peers through a pair of peepholes in a door installed in the PhiladelphiaMuseum of Art. Beyond those doors is the sculpted body of a nude female figurewhose genitalia are revealedas she leans back on a bed of twigs set in a pastorallandscape.Both TheLargeGlass and Given... challengea viewer'ssensibilities.The lifelike figuresof the latter put the viewer in the place of a voyeur,whereas TheBride StrippedBare by Her Bachelors,Even does not deliver the stripteaseits title promises. Both engage nontraditional materialsand methods of artistic production. In TheLargeGlass,landscape elements are implied by the supplementarynotes or provided by relateddrawings. By contrast,Given... incorporatesactuallandscapeelements-branches, twigs, and leavesscavengedfrom New YorkCity'sparks-in the dioramasetting of an illusionistic painted landscape. A description by the curatorsAnne d'Harnoncourt and WalterHopps emphasizesthe strangeeffect of this view:
One looks througha jaggedhole in a brickwall, apparentlya few feet away,at a nude woman lying on her backamong a mass of twigs and leaves.Her face is farthestaway from the viewer and is hidden completelyby a wave of blonde hair.Her legs extend toward the door; her feet are obscured by the brick wall. Her right arm cannot be seen, but her left arm is raised,and in her hand she holds up the verticalglassfixture

498

THE GEOGRAPHICAL

REVIEW

In of a smallgaslamp,whichglowsfaintly. the distance hilly,woodedlandscape a of risesabovethe waters a pond,the cloudsaresoftandwhitein a bluesky,andto thefarrighta waterfall flowsandsparkles in endlessly-theonlymovingelement the in silenttableau, whichis bathed brilliant frominvisible The sources. sceneis at light and the once startlingly naturalistic eerilyunreal, quality unreality of somehow foin view:thelittlegaslamp, on theoneman-made whoseincongruity is object cusing
yet an integralpart of the whole conception. (1973,8)

As in the readymades,a special role is performedhere by the manufacturedobject in Duchamp'sfinal work-a gas lamp (a Bec Auer brand commercialproduct). The wooded setting of Given... correspondsto that of a specific type of landscape painting popular in late-nineteenth-centuryart. Such paintings, called sousboisby the French,often carriedan aura of sexual license, sometimes made explicit by the inclusion of a nude. Although the English translation of sous-bois,"under wood,"does not have the same naughty currency,landscape here enters the realm of the readymadesthrough an act of verbaltranslation.Such wordplaypunctuates all of Duchamp'swork (Lebel 1959; Sanouillet 1973; Sanouillet and Peterson 1973; Bauer 1989). When Duchamp found the words "under wood" emblazoned on a manufactureditem-a cover for an Underwood typewriter-he declaredit a readymade sculpture in 1916 and called it Traveler's FoldingItem (Schwarz1997, 645). As the object's relation to landscape is distanced and intellectualizedby the play of translation, the manufacturedqualities of the object obscure the words' connections to nature. Although landscape is one of the elements that may be used to reveal a unity behind the diversityof Duchamp'soeuvre, landscape does not provide a simple or a singularinterpretivelens through which to understandhis work. Duchamp'sTheLargeGlassand the readymadesdo, however,challengeand remake the traditions of landscape representationthat were established firmly before the twentieth century. The complex, layeredassociations of the readymadesare consistent with the in multiplicityof meaningsfound, individuallyand collectively, the worksthat make up Duchamp's entire creativeoutput. For Duchamp, things are never only what they seem to be. A bit of bloody gauze can become the profile of GeorgeWashington, but, viewed from another perspective,the same work becomes a map of the Contextand perspective physicalnationthe presidentrepresents.8 changethe viewer's experience,and a geographically grounded readingof Duchamp'sart proposes new meanings for the well-known work of this major modern artist. As this essay has argued, the geographystructuredby the monuments of Paris has influenced cartography,tourism, and the readymadesculpturesof MarcelDuchamp in ways that have not previously been recognized. Duchamp's Fountain can stand in for the at Basilique du Sacr&-Coeur the same time that it is an iconoclastic challenge to artistic traditions. The histories of modern art and geographyare related in ways that are not alwaysapparentand that often requirecomplex investigationand interpretation.Although modern art does not alwaysrepresentthe landscapein immemerits betweenmodern artand geography diatelyrecognizable ways,the relationship

DUCHAMP

AND MODERN

PARIS

499

further consideration.Perhaps,with examplessuch as those offeredby Duchamp's readymadesto consider,geographerswill identify previously unrecognized methods and traditions of landscaperepresentationin art and in everydaylife.
NOTES 1. A significantyet limited exception can be found in GunnarOlsson'sillustrationof Duchamp's BicycleWheeland Fountainwithout discussion of either work or of Duchamp (Olsson 1994,216,234). 2. This statementdoes not imply that there can ever be a purely objectiveor documentary mode of artistic representation.The expeditionaryartist RichardKern'sactive speculation about and reorganization of NativeAmericanpueblos offers an example of subjectivetransformationof documentary evidence (Balm 2ooo, 594-595). The notion of objectivity in documentary photography was questioned in the nineteenth century,long before the rise of digital photographictechnologies virtuKrauss1982; ally eliminated the faith in "transparent" realityof documentary images (Goldberg1981;
Bolton 1989; Solomon-Godeau 1991; Tagg 1993; Goin 2001). In a significant essay published in this

journal, Peter Goin urged readersto evaluate their perceptions and assumptions regardingphotography'saesthetics and objectivity: with social scientists commonly are armed cameras mayproduce and Although competent photographs, that conventions pictorial of are or thereis onlyscantevidence prevailing representation understood The evenchallenged. mythof objectivity hardly is muchlessthe complexity a photograph's of debated, The is are and at construction context. paradox omnipresent: Photographs documents one levelof the woven withina cultural of visual Yet is illusion frame reference spectrum. thephotograph a constructed andpointof view. the a that its Within photograph subject become symbol cantranscend own any may At of cannotbe ignored. (2001, 367) appearance. thesametime,thepolitics representation By raising issues of authorship,intention, and audience, of relationshipsbetween word and image, and of the conditions of production, presentation,exhibition, or publication of images, Goin points to areasin which the currentmethods of art and art history might be harnessedproductivelyby other disciplines. tradi3. Criticalevaluationsof Frenchlandscapepainting necessarilybuild on the "site-specific" tions of art-historicalscholarship;Nicholas Green'ssophisticatedanalysisof the economics and ideologies at work in Frenchnaturetourism thereforecomplements RobertHerbert'sinterestin tourism (Herbert1988;Green1987,199o). Scholarshaveyet to build on KermitChampa'sattempt to integrate historicallygrounded yet novel theoreticalperspectivesinto his interpretationsof the success of the genre of landscapepainting in nineteenth-centuryFrance(1991). 4. This discussion of the Vidaliantradition in Frenchgeographyis not meant to be comprehensive;for furtherdiscussion see Anne Buttimer's1971 monograph. In a book I am writing I build on the argumentsin this essay and engage Francophonegeographicalthought at greaterlength. 5. My argument that the readymadesrepresent the landscape of Paris monuments builds on Weiss'sobservationthat the forms of BottleRackand BicycleWheelparallelthose of the Eiffel Jeffrey Towerand the FerrisWheel (1994).Duchamp'sfriend FrancisPicabiaand other artistsassociatedwith the dada movements in modern art developed the tradition of the object portrait,in which an object stands in for the person it represents.Picabia'swork of 1915 gives two excellent examples of this concept as developed in two-dimensional art: Portraitof AlfredStieglitz (l'Ideale) substitutes a broken camerafor the photographerfamous for his promotion of modern art, and a line drawingof a spark Girl plug becomes the sexuallychargedstand-in for a YoungAmerican in a Stateof Nudity (Corn 1999). 6. In a similar transferenceof cultural power that preceded Charlemagne'sact, a collection of earlyChristianmarvelshad been transportedfrom the Holy Landto the site of the Lateranpalace in the medieval times. Transferring Ark of the Covenant (containing the tablets of the Ten Commandments) and other relics associatedwith the Old and New Testamentsto Rome, "the city had become
equivalent to Jerusalem" (Boholm 1997, 260).

7. Duchamp'ssculpturalinstallationGiven .. was presentedto the PhiladelphiaMuseum of Art in 1968by the CassandraFoundation.Under the terms of that agreement,publication of photographs of the interiorview of the work was banned for at least fifteenyears (Duchamp 1987).Following these sentiments, a written description may be a better than a black-and-white reproductionmight offer.

500

THE GEOGRAPHICAL

REVIEW

and of discussion the work, For,as Anned'Harnoncourt Walter Hoppswrotein the firstextended "[W]hatone actually canbe reduced words,butthe initialimpact[of viewing]is one of the sees to of mostcrucial second-hand" (1973,8). aspects thework,andone whichcannotbe rendered 8. Duchamp's Genre was rejected the jurythat had solicited Allegory [George by Washington] in contributions thecoverof Vogue for Viewed a it magazine 1943. horizontally, resembled mapof the UnitedStates; vertically, outlinedtheprofile Washington seen it of (Schwarz 769). 1997,
REFERENCES

Museed'Angouleme. to "Find Inscription theWoolworth C. an for Adcock, E. 1985.Marcel Duchamp's Approach NewYork: as Dada/Surrealism 52-65. 14: Building a Ready-Made." D. 22 Introduction. History (4):467-471. Art Arnold, 1999. Editor's K. and with to Handbook Travellers. Baedeker, 1904.Paris Environs, Routes London Paris: 15th from for rev.ed. Leipzig: Baedeker; York: K. New Scribner. Art: R. Review (4):585-602. Balm, 2000. Expeditionary AnAppraisal. 90 Geographical The Poorin English CamBarrell, 1980. TheDarkSideof theLandscape: Rural J. Landscape Painting. and Press. bridge, England, NewYork: Cambridge University G. Puns.In Marcel Artistof the Century, editedby Bauer, 1989.Duchamp's Ubiquitous Duchamp: R.Kuenzli F.M.Naumann, and MITPress. Mass.: 127-148. Cambridge, R. and of Art Fauvism, theArabesque Observation. BulLandscape, Benjamin, 1993.TheDecorative letin75(2):295-316. A. and The Rustic UniTradition, 1740-1860. Bermingham, 1986.Landscape Ideology: English Berkeley: of Press. versity California Histories: Medieval Romeas a Memorial Ecumene (3): Boholm,A. 1997.Reinvented 4 Landscape.
247-272.

Entrearcheologie modernitW. et Abadie,P. 1984. PaulAbadie,architecte, 1812-1844: Angouleme,France:

Bolton, R., ed. 1989. The Contestof Meaning:CriticalHistoriesof Photography. Cambridge,Mass.: MIT Press. Bonk, E. 1989. MarcelDuchamp,The Box in a Valise:De ou par MarcelDuchamp ou RroseSelavy: A New Haven,Conn.: YaleUniverBrettell,R. R. 199o. Pissarroand Pontoise: Painterin a Landscape.

Translated D. Britt. NewYork: Rizzoli. Inventory an Edition. of by sity Press.

andtheFrench Los Calif.: Angeles Los of Museum Art. Landscape. Angeles, County R. in Violence Revelation Paris, and in N.Y.: Burton, D.E. 2001.Blood theCity: Ithaca, Cornell 1789-1945. Press. University
Tradition.Association of American Buttimer,A. 1971. Societyand Milieu in the FrenchGeographic Rand McNally. Camfield,W. A. 1989. MarcelDuchamp,Fountain.Houston, Tex.:Houston Fine Art Press. New Brunswick,N.J.: Rutgers Cate, P. D., ed. 1988. The GraphicArts and FrenchSociety,1871-1914.

Brettell,R. R., S. Gache-Patin,F.Heilbrun,and S. Schaefer. 1984. A Day in the Country: Impressionism

6. Published theAssociation American for of Monograph Chicago: Geographers Geographers by

Zimmerli Museum. PressandJane Voorhees Art University K. Rise in to Corot Monet. N.H.: Manchester, CurChampa, S. 1991.The ofLandscape Painting France: rierGallery Art. of K. into Clark, 1949.Landscape Art.London: Murray. J. T. in New Clark, J. 1985.ThePainting Modern Paris theArtofManetandHisFollowers. York: Life: of Knopf. Art W. Modern andNational Corn, M. 1999. TheGreatAmerican 1915-1935. Thing: Identity, Berkeley: of Press. University California D. Formation Symbolic and Rev. of Cosgrove, E. 1998. Social Landscape. ed.Madison: University WisconsinPress. London: Reaktion Books. , ed. 1999.Mappings. D. eds. 1988.TheIconographyLandscape: on Cosgrove, E.,andS.Daniels, of Essays theSymbolic Repand Useof PastEnvironments. and Camresentation, Design, Cambridge, England, New York: Press. bridgeUniversity

DUCHAMP

AND MODERN

PARIS

501

tions on a New Workby MarcelDuchamp.Philadelphia:PhiladelphiaMuseum of Art. Daniels, S. 1993. Fieldsof Vision:Landscape Imageryand National Identityin Englandand the United States.Princeton,N.J.:Princeton UniversityPress. for Duchamp,M. 1987. ManualofInstructions ktant donn s: 10 LaChute d'eau, 20 Le Gaz d'&clairage. Philadelphia:PhiladelphiaMuseum of Art. London and Cologne: TyposophicSociety. . 1999. MarcelDuchamp:A l'infinitif. Gilbert,D. 1999. "Londonin All Its Glory-or How to Enjoy London":Guidebook Representations
of Imperial London. Journal of Historical Geography 25 (3): 272-297. Goin, P. 2001. Visual Literacy. Geographical Review 91 (1-2): 363-369.

D'Harnoncourt, A., and W. Hopps. 1973. Etant donnes:

10 La Chute

d'eau, 20 Le Gaz d'6clairage: Reflec-

in from 1816to the Present.New York:Simon and Goldberg,V., ed. 1981. Photography Print:Writings Schuster. of Economic Transformation the Artistic Field in France Green,N. 1987. Dealing in Temperaments: during the Second Half of the Nineteenth Century.Art Historyto (1):59-78. and France. Culturein NineteenthCentury . 199o. TheSpectacle ofNature:Landscape Bourgeois Manchester,England,and New York:ManchesterUniversityPress. D. and Studiesin theHistoryand Theoryof CapitalHarvey, 1985. Consciousness the UrbanExperience: ist Urbanization. Baltimore,Md.: Johns Hopkins UniversityPress. Maps: Symbols,Picturesand Surveys.London: Harvey,P. D. A. 1980. The Historyof Topographical Thames and Hudson. in Henderson,L. D. 1998. Duchampin Context:Scienceand Technology The LargeGlass and Related Works. Princeton,N.J.:Princeton UniversityPress. Clark & Way. Herbert,R. L. 1962. BarbizonRevisited: Essayand Catalogue.New York: Art, . 1988. Impressionism: Leisure,and Parisian Society.New Haven, Conn.: YaleUniversity -Press. House, J. 1986. Monet:Nature intoArt. New Haven, Conn.:YaleUniversityPress. Monet, Renoir,Pissarro,and TheirRivals. Boston: Museum of -. 1995. Impressions France: of Fine Arts. Amherst:Universityof Massachusetts Jackson,J. B. 1980. The Necessity Ruins,and Other Topics. for Press. Modernismin Fin-de-Sibcle Jensen,R. 1994. Marketing Europe.Princeton,N.J.:Princeton University Press. Jonas, R. 2000. Franceand the Cult of the SacredHeart:An Epic Talefor Modern Times. Berkeley: Universityof CaliforniaPress. . 2001. SacredTourismand SecularPilgrimage:Montmartreand the Basilicaof Sacr&-Coeur. In Montmartre and theMakingof Mass Culture,edited by G. P.Weisberg,94-119.New Brunswick, N.J.:RutgersUniversityPress.
Kagan, R. L. 2000. Urban Images of the Hispanic World, 1493-1793. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University

Press. Kant,I. 1951[1790]. CritiqueofJudgment.Translated J. H. Bernard.New York:Hafner Publishing by Co. and Statecraft.Chicago: in Konvitz,J.W. 1987. Cartography France,1660-1848:Science,Engineering, Universityof Chicago Press.
Krauss, R. E. 1982. Photography's Discursive Spaces: Landscape/View. Art Journal 42 (4): 311-319.

with Seventeen Artists.New York:Harper& Row. Talks Kuh,K. 1962. TheArtist'sVoice: Lebel,R. 1959. MarcelDuchamp.Translated G. H. Hamilton. New York:GrovePress. by Lukacher,B. 2002. LandscapeArt and Romantic Nationalism in Germany and America. In NineThames teenthCentury Art:A CriticalHistory,edited by S. F.Eisenman,143-159. 2d ed. New York: & Hudson. A Oxford,England,and Malden,Mass.: Mitchell,D. 200ooo.CulturalGeography: CriticalIntroduction. BlackwellPublishers. MNMF [Mus~e National des Monuments Frangais,Paris]. 1988. Paul Abadie,architecte,1812-1844: Paris, 4 Novembre1988-16Janvier1989. 2d ed. Paris: MusdeNational des MonumentsFranFais, Ministbrede la Culture,de la Communication, des GrandsTravauxet du Bicentenaire. San Moffett,C. S., dir. 1986. TheNew Painting,Impressionism, 1874-1886. Francisco:Fine Arts Museums of San Francisco.

502

THE GEOGRAPHICAL

REVIEW

the Past.Translated A. Goldhammer. Nora, P.,ed. 1996-1998. RealmsofMemory:Rethinking French by Translationedited by L. D. Kritzman.3 vols. New York:Columbia UniversityPress. AmericanLandscape Painting,1825-1875. and New York:Oxford Novak, B. 1980. Natureand Culture: UniversityPress. Olsen, D. J. 1986. TheCityas a Work ofArt:London,Paris,Vienna.New Haven,Conn.:YaleUniversity Press. Ecumene1 (3): 215-234. Olsson, G. 1994. Heretic Cartography. Peltz, L. 1999. Aestheticizingthe AncestralCity: Antiquarianism,Topography,and the Representation of London in the Long EighteenthCentury.Art History22 (4): 472-494. Pinkney,D. H. 1958. NapoleonIII and the Rebuildingof Paris. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press. London: Pion. Relph,E. 1976. Placeand Placelessness. Rewald,J. 1973. TheHistoryof Impressionism. rev. ed. New York:Museum of Modern Art; Bos4th, ton: New YorkGraphicSociety. Rykwert,J. 1996. TheDancing Column:On Orderin Architecture. Cambridge,Mass.:MIT Press. Sanouillet, M. 1973. Marcel Duchamp and the French Intellectual Tradition.In MarcelDuchamp, edited by A. d'Harnoncourtand K. McShine,47-55. New York: Museum of ModernArt;Philadelphia: PhiladelphiaMuseum of Art. Sanouillet, M., and E. Peterson,eds. 1973. Salt Seller:The Writingsof MarcelDuchamp. New York: Oxford UniversityPress. and A. Schama,S. 1995. Landscape Memory.New York: A. Knopf. Schwarz,A. 1997. The CompleteWorksof Marcel Duchamp. 3d rev. ed. 2 vols. New York:Delano GreenridgeEditions. A and Critical Shiff, R. 1984. Cezanneand the End of Impressionism: Study of the Theory,Technique, Evaluationof ModernArt. Chicago:Universityof Chicago Press. at Solomon-Godeau,A. 1991. Photography the Dock:Essayson Photographic History,Institutions,and Practices. Minneapolis:Universityof Minnesota Press. Sutcliffe,A. 1995. The Impressionistsand Haussmann'sParis.FrenchCulturalStudies6 (2): 197-220. and Tagg,J. 1993. TheBurdenof Representation: Essayson Photographies Histories.Minneapolis:University of Minnesota Press. in Thrower,N. J.W. 1996. Mapsand Civilization:Cartography Cultureand Society.Chicago:University of Chicago Press. A New York:Henry Holt. Tomkins,C. 1996. Duchamp: Biography. P. Tucker, H. 1982. Monet at Argenteuil.New Haven, Conn.:YaleUniversityPress. . 1989. Monet in the '9os:The SeriesPaintings.Boston:Museum of Fine Arts. The Warnke,M. 1995. PoliticalLandscape: Art Historyof Nature.Cambridge,Mass.:HarvardUniversity Press. New HaWeiss,J. 1994. The PopularCultureof ModernArt:Picasso,Duchamp,and Avant-Gardism. ven, Conn.: YaleUniversityPress. Williams,R. 1973. The Countryand the City.New York:Oxford UniversityPress. Wohl, H. 1977. Beyond The LargeGlass:Notes on a LandscapeDrawing by Marcel Duchamp. BurlingtonMagazine119 (869): 763-772.