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Basic Electronics : Basic Components

By Dulsha Kularatna Abeywardana


ME Electrical & Electronics (Auckland, New Zealand), BE - Electrical & Electronics (Auckland, New Zealand)

Chapter 1
Components, Quantities and Units In electrical circuits we deal with a very large number of physical quantities such as voltage, current, resistance, inductance, capacitance, power etc. The system of units used in engineering and science is the Systme International dUnits (International system of units), usually abbreviated to SI units, and is based on the metric system. This was introduced in 1960 and is now adopted by the majority of countries as the official system of measurement. Although it is possible to assign a standard unit for each quantity, it is rarely necessary to do so because many of the quantities are functionally related through experiment, derivation or definition. For example, the units of only three quantities (mass, length and time) are needed to study mechanics since all other quantities (ex. Area, volume, velocity etc) can be expressed in terms of these quantities. The units selected for these three quantities are called fundamental units. In order to cover the entire subject of engineering three other fundamental units have been defined, which are, electric current, temperature and luminous intensity. Derived SI units use combinations of basic units and there are many of them. Two examples are: Velocitymeters per second (m/s) Accelerationmeters per second squared (m/s2) There are seven fundamental quantities and they have been assigned standard units of measurements. The international system of units (abbreviated as SI units) has been universally accepted and units have been assigned for the fundamental quantities by this system, as given below in table 1.1.
Table 1.1 Seven fundamental quantities

Quantity Length Mass Time Electric Current Temperature Luminous Intensity Amount of substance

Symb ol l, L m t I T I

Unit Name meter kilogram second ampere degree kelvin candela Mole

Unit Symbol m kg s A K Cd mol

SI units may be made larger or smaller by using prefixes that denote multiplication or division by a particular amount. The six most common multiples, with their meaning, are listed in Table 1.2.
Table 1.2 Most common multiples

Prefix M k m n p

Nam e mega kilo milli micro nano pico

Meaning multiply by 1,000,000 (i.e., x 106 ) multiply by 1,000 (i.e., x 103 ) divide by 1,000 (i.e., x 10-3 ) divide by 1,000,000 (i.e., x 10-6 ) divide by 1,000,000,000 (i.e., x 10-9 ) divide by 1,000,000,000,000 (i.e., x 10-12 )

Quantity Length Mass Time Velocity

Table 1.3 : Electrical terms, units, and symbols


Quantity Symbol l m t v a F Q I R G E V W E (or W) P Unit

Unit symbol m kg s m/s or ms-1 m/s2 or ms- 2 N C A S V V J J W

meter kilogram second meters per second meters per second squared newton coulomb ampere ohm siemen volt volt joule joule watt

Acceleration Force Electrical charge or quantity Electric current Resistance Conductance Electromotive force Potential difference Work Energy Power

Symbols are used for components in electrical circuit diagrams and some of the more common ones are shown in Figure 1.1 .

Figure 1.1 Common electrical component symbols

Basic Electrical Measuring Instruments An ammeter is an instrument used to measure current and must be connected in series with the circuit. Figure 1.2 shows an ammeter connected in series with the lamp to measure the current fl owing through it. Since all the current in the circuit passes through the ammeter it must have a very low resistance. A voltmeter is an instrument used to measure voltage and must be connected in parallel with the part of the circuit whose voltage is required. In Figure 1.2, a voltmeter is connected in parallel with the lamp to measure the voltage across it. To avoid a significant current flowing through it, a voltmeter must have a very high resistance.

Figure 1.2

An ohmmeter is an instrument for measuring resistance. A multimeter, or universal instrument, may be used to measure voltage, current and resistance. The oscilloscope may be used to observe waveforms and to

measure voltages and currents. The display of an oscilloscope involves a spot of light moving across a screen. The amount by which the spot is deflected from its initial position depends on the voltage applied to the terminals of the oscilloscope and the range selected. The displacement is calibrated in volts per cm. For example, if the spot is deflected 3 cm and the volts/cm switch is on 10 V/cm, then the magnitude of the voltage is 3 cm x 10 V/cm, i.e., 30 V.

Basic Circuit Components Electric circuits or networks are formed by interconnecting various devices, sources, and components. Although the effects of each element (such as heating effects, electric-field effects, or magnetic-field effects) are distributed throughout space, one often lumps them together as lumped elements. The passive components are the resistance R representing the heating effect, the capacitance C representing the electric-field effect, and the inductance L representing the magnetic-field effect. Their characteristics will be discussed later in the course. Resistors An ideal resistor is a circuit element with the property that the current through it is linearly proportional to the potential difference across its terminals. R is known as the resistance of the resistor with the SI unit of ohms (), and G is the reciprocal of resistance called conductance, with the SI unit of siemens (S). The circuit symbols of fixed and variable resistors are shown in Figure 1.1. Resistors will be discussed in detail in the next chapter. Capacitors An ideal capacitor is an energy-storage circuit element (with no loss associated with it) representing the electric-field effect. The symbol for capacitors is shown in figure 1.3. Capacitors will be discussed in detail later in chapter 12.

Figure 1.3 Inductors An ideal inductor is also an energy-storage circuit element (with no loss associated with it) like a capacitor, but representing the magnetic-field effect. The symbol for inductors is shown in figure 1.4. Inductors will be discussed in detail later in chapter 13.

Figure 1.4

Voltage Source In electric circuit theory, an ideal voltage source is a circuit element where the voltage across it is independent of the current through it. A voltage source supplies a constant DC or AC potential between its terminals for any current flow through it. Real-world sources of electrical energy, such as batteries, generators, or power systems, can be modelled for analysis purposes as a combination of an ideal voltage source and additional combinations of impedance elements. No real voltage source is ideal; all have a non-zero effective internal resistance, and none can supply unlimited current. However, the internal resistance of a real voltage source is effectively modelled in linear circuit analysis by combining a non-zero resistance in series with an ideal voltage source. Figure 1.5 illustrates the symbols used to represent a voltage source.

Figure 1.5

Current Source A current source is an electrical or electronic device that delivers or absorbs electric current. A current source is the dual of a voltage source. The term constant-current sink is sometimes used for sources fed from a negative voltage supply. No real current source is ideal (no unlimited energy sources exist) and all have a finite internal resistance (none can supply unlimited voltage). However, the internal resistance of a physical current source is effectively modelled in circuit analysis by combining a non-zero resistance in parallel with an ideal current source. Figure 1.6 illustrates the symbols used for a current source.

Figure 1.6

Chapter 2
Voltage, Current and Resistance Matter is electric in nature since they contain protons and electrons. If the number of electrons are equal to protons in a body the resultant charge is zero and the body will be electrically neutral. For example the paper of the note is electrically neutral since it has the same number of electrons and protons. However , if some electrons are removed from a neutral body a deficit of electrons occurs in the body and it becomes positively charged. If a neutral body is supplied with electrons, an excess of electrons occur and the body attains a negative charge. The charge of an electron is so small that it is not convenient to select it as the unit of charge. Coulomb is used as the unit of charge. One Coulomb (C) of charge is equal to the charge of 628 x 1016 electrons. 1 Coulomb = Charge of 628 x 1016 We know that electrons move around the nucleus of an atom in different orbits. Electrons in the inner orbits are tightly bound to the nucleus. As we move away from the nucleus the binding decreases so that electrons in the last orbit (called valence electrons) are quite loosely bound to the nucleus. In certain substances, especially metals, the valence electrons are so weakly attached to their nuclei and can be easily removed or detached. Those valence electrons which are very loosely attached to the nucleus of an atom are called free electrons.

Electric Current The flow of free electrons is called electric current. In figure 2.1 the copper strip has a large number of free electrons. When electric pressure or voltage is applied, free electrons which are negatively charged, will start moving towards the positive terminal around the circuit as shown below. This directed flow of free electrons is called electric current. - Copper Convention Free +Electrons al Strip Current

Figure 2.1

The actual direction of current is from the negative terminal to the positive terminal through the circuit external to the cell. But prior to electron theory, it was assumed that current flowed from the positive terminal to the negative terminal of the cell via the circuit. Therefore this assumed direction is called the conventional current. Electric current is defined as the rate of flow of charge through a conductor, i.e. the charge flowing per second. I = Q/ t The charge Q is measured in Coulombs and time t in seconds. Therefore the unit of electric current will be coulombs/sec or ampere. If Q = 1C and t = 1s then the current I = 1A. One ampere of current is said to flow through a wire if at any section one coulomb of charge flows in one second. A closed path is essential for the current to flow through a circuit.

Example 2.1 If a current of 5 A flows for 2 minutes, find the quantity of electricity transferred. Example 2.2 What current must flow if 0.24 coulombs is to be transferred in 15 ms? Example 2.3 If a current of 10 A flows for 4 minutes, find the quantity of electricity transferred.

Electric Potential When a body is charged, work is done by charging it. This work done is stored in the body in the form of potential energy. The charged body has the capacity to do work by moving other charges either by attraction or repulsion. The ability of the charged body to do work is called the electric potential. The capacity of a charged body to do work is called electric potential. Electric potential, V = Work doneCharge = WQ The work done is measured in joules and charge in coulombs and therefore the unit for electric potential is joules/coulomb or volt. If W = 1J, Q = 1C then V = 1V. A body is said to have an electric potential of 1 volt if 1 joule of work is done to give it a charge of 1 coulomb.

Potential Difference The difference in the potentials of two charged bodies is called potential difference. If two bodies have different electric potentials, a potential difference exists between the bodies. Consider the two bodies, A and B, in figure 2.2, have potentials of 5V and 3V respectively. Each coulomb of charge on body A has an energy of 5 joules while each coulomb of charge on body B has as an energy of 3 joules. Body A is at a higher potential than body B.
B A +3V +5V

Figure 2.2

If the two bodies are joined through a conductor then electrons will from body B to body A and once the two bodies attain the same potential the flow of current stops. Therefore it can be concluded that a current will flow in a circuit if a potential difference exists. The potential difference is commonly referred to as voltage, and it is measured in volts. The potential difference between two points is 1 volt if one joule of work is done in transferring 1 coulomb of charge from one point to the other.

Resistance The opposition effect by a substance to the flow of current is called resistance. This opposition occurs because atoms and molecules of the substance obstruct the flow of these electrons. Certain substances, such as metals, offer very little opposition and are called conductors. Substances such as glass, rubber, mica, dry wood etc. offer high opposition and are called insulators. We can also say that resistance is the electric friction offered by the substance and causes production of heat with the flow of electric current. The moving electrons collide with atoms or molecules of the substance and each collision results in the release of a minute quantity of energy in the form of heat. The practical unit of resistance is ohm and is represented by the symbol . A wire is said to have a resistance of 1 if a potential difference of 1V across its ends causes a current of 1A to flow through it.

Factors upon which Resistance Depends

The resistance of a conductor: I. II. III. IV. Is directly proportional to its length (l) Is inversely proportional to its area of cross section (a) Depends upon the nature of the material Changes with temperature

R la R = la is a constant and is known as the resistivity or specific resistance of the material. The value of depends upon the nature of the material. In general, the resistance of a material changes with the change in temperature. The effect of temperature varies according to the type of material. The resistance in pure metals (copper, aluminium), increases with the increase of temperature. The change in resistance is fairly regular for a normal range of temperatures. The resistance of electrolytes, insulators (glass, mica, rubber) and semi-conductors (germanium, silicon) decreases with the increase in temperature. Such materials have a negative temperature coefficient. Resistance of alloys increases with the rise of temperature, but this increase is very small and irregular. For some high resistance alloys (eureka, manganin, cons, the constantan) the change in resistance is practically negligible over a wide range of temperatures.

Resistivity Resistivity (specific resistance) of a material is the resistance offered by 1m length of wire of material having an area of cross section of m2. Resistivity can also be defined as the resistance between the opposite faces of a meter cube of material. Resistivity is measured in ohm-m (m).

Resistors Resistors that are found in electric circuits doing many different tasks have different physical constructions, power dissipation capability and tolerance of the resistance value. Most resistors used in practice are good approximations to linear resistors for large ranges of current, and their iv characteristic (current versus voltage plot) is a straight line. The wire wound resistor is often found in larger industrial applications

where greater power handling capability is required. These resistors are constructed of nickel-chromium alloy and are wound on a ceramic core. The carbon type resistors are widely used in electric circuits, but they have been replaced in the recent years by diffused resistors. The cylindrical shape is composed of carbon and is relatively inexpensive. These are highly sensitive to temperature variations. They are colour-coded to indicate their value and precision. First two bands on the resistor colour code represent the value and the third band is the multiplying factor. The fourth band indicates the tolerance of the resistor.

Figure 2.3 For example the resistor in figure 2.3 has red and green as its first two bands and orange in the multiplier band. The tolerance is silver. Therefore the value of the resistor is 2.5 x 103 and this value can vary by 10%. Carbon resistors are generally low wattage resistors with a power dissipating capability ranging from 0.1 to 2W and the physical size of the larger resistors have less than 1cm in diameter. Metal film resistors are made using film deposition techniques to deposit a thick film of resistive material onto insulating substrate. These resistors have an accuracy close to those of the wire wound resistors as they are trimmed quite accurately using laser. Diffused resistors are fabricated using the same technique as integrated circuits. They generally have a tolerance of about 20%.

Example 2.4 The resistance of a 5 m length of wire is 600 . Determine:

(a) the resistance of an 8 m length of the same wire (b) the length of the same wire when the resistance is 420 Example 2.5 A piece of wire of cross-sectional area 2 mm2 has a resistance of 300 . Find: (a) the resistance of a wire of the same length and material if the cross-sectional area is 5 mm2 (b) the cross-sectional area of a wire of the same length and material of resistance 750

Example 2.6 Calculate the cross-sectional area, in mm2, of a piece of copper wire, 40 m in length and having a resistance of 0.25 . Take the resistivity of copper as 0.02 x 10-6 m.

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