Topic 6 - Atomic and Nuclear physics

6.1 Atoms and their constituents 6.1.1 : The idea of Millikan's oil drop expt was the have very small 'oil drops' which had some charge balanced between two electric plates. By knowing the strength of the field between the plates, it was possible to calculate the amount of force being applied per charge on the drop, which, if it was floating, would be exactly the same as the force of gravity downwards. From this, it is possible to find the mass to charge ratio of the drops. The mass of the drop was then measured by cutting the field and measuring it's terminal velocity and stokes equation. This allowed the charges on the drops to be found, and it was found that the smallest difference between these charges was 1.6 x 10-19 C, the charge of an electron. 6.1.2 : If a mass is being suspended by an electric field, then mg = qE (mass x gravity = charge x electric field strength). Electric field strength can be can be expressed as V/d, (potential difference divided by distance) and so some calculations can be done with this stuff. 6.1.3 : The results showed that the minimum difference between charges was 1.6 x 1019 C and so this must be the smallest unit of charge possible. 6.1.4 : This means that charge must be quantized (only come in discrete bits, not continuous), and the quantum of charge was 1.6 x 10-19 C. Sophie Lee's version 6.1.5 : An electron gun relies on the principle of thermonic emission. There is a large PD created between two metal plates in a vacuum. The cathode (the negative one from which the electrons come) emits a bunch of electrons. They accelerate towards the anode (the positive plate), which has a hole in it, and so some of the electrons fly through and create a sort of beam of electrons (originally called a cathode ray). For what it's worth, Miten Shah offers this advice about remembering that the cathode is negative, and the anode positive... Well I remember it like this, maybe it will help some of you confused souls...hehe cathode - negatve ......."C-" anode - posivte ......... "A+"

6.1.6 : Cathode rays can be deflected by both electric and magnetic fields, and act as negatively charged particle would in such fields. both these properties can be explained by the fact that they are actually electrons. 6.1.7 : Thompson's experiment involved using electric and magnetic fields to exactly cancel each other's effects and allow an electron to pass undeflected. The electric field is then removed and the radius of curvature is then measured. The equations then simplify down to give an expression for e/min which all the other terms are known, and so the ration could be accurately found. 6.1.8 : By knowing the charge of an electron (Millikan) and the charge to mass ratio (Thompson) it is possible to find the mass of an electron...So that makes Thompson the discoverer of the electron...well horray for him. 6.1.9 : The alpha particle scattering experiment involved firing alpha particles at a sheet of very thin gold foil, and detecting where they went (with a screen). 6.1.10 : The results of the above experiment were that the majority of alpha particles passes straight through. Of those which were deflected, many were deflected through very large angles, and even straight back at the source. This result suggested that atoms consisted mostly of empty space, whit a small nucleus of high positive charge. 6.1.11 : Rutherford's model was therefor that around the small, highly charged nucleus, electrons orbited like planets around the sun. This created many more questions...why didn't the electrons emit radiation and lose energy...and how would they be kept in a constant orbit. 6.2 Nuclei and their constituents 6.2.1 : Radioactive decay is basically atoms (or more specifically nuclei) spontaneously breaking off small parts (alpha, beta and gamma particles) of themselves. This was accidentally discovered due to the effects of these particles on photographic film which was being kept in a drawer with them. This lead to a systematic analysis of such particles, and the elements which produced them. The three different types mentioned above were found and separated, and the effect on the atoms undergoing this process (changing elements from one type to another) was examined. 6.2.2 : The three types of radiation were first divided by their ionising power. Rutherford later showed an alpha particle to be the nucleus of a helium atom by measuring their emission spectra. Beta particles were found to be free electrons, but

emitted from the nucleus as a result of the changes which occurred in it. Gamma rays were found to be a type of very high frequency electromagnetic radiation. 6.2.3 : The products of alpha and beta decay are quite easy to find...simply write out and balance the nuclear equations...
A ZX

-> A-4Z-2Y + 42He ... then determine what element and isotope Y is.

6.2.4 : Radiation tends to ionise (strip the electrons from) gases when it passes through. This fact is used the the detection of radiation with geiger counters. (no real detail is required here) 6.2.5 : AZX -- A is the mass number, the number of nucleons or whatever else you'd like to call it...the number of protons + the number of neutrons. Z is the proton number, the atomic number...the number of protons. To find the number of neutrons, obviously, subtract Z from A. 6.2.6 : Artificial transmutation ... cool name for a somewhat boring thing ... when atoms decay, they change into different atoms, and this is called artificial transmutation. Atoms usually only lose alpha and beta particles (gamma is just a loss of energy, so not relevant here). An alpha particle is 2 protons and 2 neutrons. A beta particle is 1 negative charge, effectively a neutron turning into a proton in the nucleus. These facts can be put together to predict the results of nuclear equations. 6.2.7 : Describe how the reaction between N and He led to the discovery of the proton...By bombarding nitrogen nuclei with alpha particles, Rutherford caused the ejection of hydrogen nuclei and the production of a new oxygen nucleus. As a result, the proton was discovered. 6.2.8 : The proton is the thing in the nucleus of a hydrogen atom, and there are an increasing number in other atom's nuclei. It has the same magnitude of charge as an electron, though of positive rather than negative. 6.2.9 : Radioactive decay is a random process for individual atoms, but overall, a block of radioactive atom's rate of decay is exponential, falling to zero eventually. The decay rate can not be affected by physical or chemical conditions. For a large number of atoms, the number of radioactive atoms will halve over a regular period of time, called the half life, and this results in the exponential nature. 6.2.10 : Half life is the period of time (average, though accurate for a large number of atoms) required for the rate of decay of a radioactive sample to decrease to half it's initial value. This is a constant for a given isotope.

6.2.11 : The half life life can be determined from a graph by taking a point on the graph, finding it's rate, finding the rate which is half of this, then finding the point on the graph which corresponds to this half rate. The half life is the time, as it is on the xaxis, between the two points. 6.2.12 : The reactivity after n half lives will be Initial x (1/2)n. (not in data book, but fairly obvious...) Topic 13 - Atomic and nuclear physics (HL)

13.1 Atoms and their constituents 13.1.1 : Millikan's oil drop experiment involved first producing small droplets of oil with an atomizer. Some of these then fell through a small hole, and into a region between two fields. Using a variable resistance, the strength of the field was adjusted until the upward force of the field (The +ve plate was up the top, -ve on the bottom, but could be reversed for drops of opposite charge) equals the downward force of gravity. after it was balanced, the voltage was recorded, and then the drop was allowed to fall. After falling some distance, the drop falls at a constant speed (where the force of gravity is equaled by the air resistance). This terminal speed is measured, and allows the mass to be found using Stoke's law. Then, we equate Fg and Ff, as follows ... qE = mg ... q = mg/E. Since the mass of the drop can be found, and both g and E are known, we can find the charge of the drop. By graphing these charge values, we find that the smallest difference between them is e, 1.6 x 10-19C. 13.1.2 : Thompson's experiment is based around the counteracting effects of electric and magnetic fields. First, the two fields are adjusted so the beam passes undeflected between them, with the deflection effects of each equaling out ... Therefore, Fe = Fb, and so Eq = Bqv therefore v = E/B. The electric field is then removed, meaning the beam is deflected downwards by the magnetic field. Since the force from a magnetic field = evB, from Fc = mv2 / r we get evB = mv2 / r. this simplifies down to e/m= v/Br. We can measure the radius of curvature, we know the velocity from above, and we know the strength of the B field, and so the value of e/mcan be found. 13.1.3 : The distance of closest approach of a particle to the nucleus can be found by the conservation of energy. The initial energy of the particle is defined by Ek = 1/2mv2. This energy is converted into potential energy as the charge approaches the nucleus. The potential energy at a given point is equal to the work done to move the charge to

that point, so W = qalphaV. V for a radial field is 1/ (4 x Pi x Eo) x qnucleus/d, so the potential energy is (qalpha qnucleus) / (4 x Pi x Eo x d). When this is equated with the kinetic energy, all the terms are known except the distance, which can therefore be found. 13.2 Nuclei and their constituents 13.2.1 : The mass spectrometer ... First we start with a source of ions, all with a +1 charge. These are accelerated through an electric field. These ions then enter a velocity selector, an area with both magnetic and electric fields applying a force in opposite directions, so as to cancel each other out. This, as above the two forces equal out, and we get Fe = Fb, and so Eq = Bqv therefore v = E/B. Thus, only ions with a particular speed are allowed through to the next stage. The electric field ends, and the ions are deflected through a magnetic field, resulting in a circular path. This means there is a centripetal force supplied by the field, and so mv2 / r = Bqv, which rearranges to m = Bqr/v. Assuming the B field is varied to keep the radius constant, mass is proportional to magnetic field strength, as everything else is constant. 13.2.2 : How Chadwick discovered the neutron, thanks to Jonathan Chui. Chadwick discover the effect by bombardment of Beryllium with alpha particles. A wax block (with its chain of hydrocarbons it serves as a proton source) is placed after a short distance, and protons are detected after the wax block. Thus there must be some way to 'knock out' the proton. From the energy the protons are in, the Compton effect due to possible gamma ray emission is too low to compensate. If the particle that alpha knocked out is a neutron though, it fits perfectly both by the conservation of energy and the conservation of momentum (since the p and n have approx. same mass, we would expect the 'pool players' result') Yet these particles are indeed uncharged. Further more, when these are to collide with protons in cloud chambers, a right angle track would result. 13.2.3 : Beta decay and the neutrino... the mechanisms are ... p -> n + e+ + a neutrino (written like a curly v) and n -> p + e- + an antineutrino (which is the same curly v with a bar on top). 13.2.4 : decay chains ... Everything can be written as a series of nuclear equations ... such as AZX + 0-1e -> AZ-1Y, the totals must be kept constant on both sides, but it's fairly easy. 13.2.5 : The equation N = No x e-lambda x t is in the data book, while delta-N/delta-t = lambda x N is not. Both can be used to find decay stuff. N is the number of

radioactive nuclei, No is the starting number and lambda is defined as ln2/half life (that's in the data book). delta-N/delta-t is the rate of decay. 13.2.6 : deduce lambda = ln2/half life. We start by taking a time after one half life, therefore N = No/2. Therefore, N = No x e-lambda x t becomes 2 = e-lambda x t. We then ln both sides to get ln2 = lambda x t0.5, and this rearranges to the required expression. 13.2.7 : By coulomb's law, the protons in the nucleus should all repel each other and break it to bits. Therefore, there must be another force holding it all together, called the strong nuclear force. This is a force which greatly outweighs the electromagnetic repulsion, but only acts over a very small distance (within the nucleus). 13.3 Energy changes within atoms 13.3.1 : Atomic emission and absorption spectra result from the fact that electrons can move between energy levels when they have sufficient energy put in. They will then fall back, emitting a defined amount of energy as light. emission spectra result from electrons being excited by electricity or something, then emitting light as the electrons fall back. Absorption spectra result from electrons absorbing energy from electromagnetic radiation, and so effectively blocking it. In the emission case, there will be a series of thin bands representing the wavelengths of light produced, and for absorption, there will be a full spectrum with some lines cut out (the wavelengths that were absorbed).
13.3.2 - 13.3.4 thanks to Jonathan Chui 13.3.2 : State Bohrs postulates a)Some stable orbits exists (assumed circular) b)electrons absorbs/emits energy in changing orbits c)Quantum condition (rules for changing orbit) : mvr = n (h/2*pi), where n=1,2,3,... This formula can be derived by equating Angular momentum L with n * hbar (hbar means h/2*pi). Historically it is based on expt discovery. We'll call it *1 later.

13.3.3 : Describe the spectrum of atomic hydrogen and account for it, using Bohrs' model. (This account should be slightly more detailed than that required by the IB.) The charge in the nucleus = Ze charge in electron = e Assuming a circular path, centripetal force = m(v square)/radius. Since this force is supported by the electronic attraction, m (v square) / r = k (Ze)(e)/ (r square) Simplifying we obtain r = k (Z)(e square)/ m(v square). Let's call it *2

From above *1, mvr = n (hbar), thus rearrangin we obtain v = n (hbar)/mr. Plugging into *2, simplify and you'll obtain a equation, which relates the orbital radius with (constant)(n square). Energy of the electron = KE + PE = 1/2 m(v square)+ k Z(e square)/r. Substitute v by expression *1, we'll arrive at E at nth shell = (constant)/r at nth shell. Since r is proportional to (n square), E = (constant)/ n square. (required by IB) Knowing this and E = hc / lambda (Planck's equation), you'll also need to know the Rydberg eqn. This is shown in the syllabus, and can be easily derived from the above. 13.3.4 : Evaluate the success and limitations of Bohr's model Success: 1) Explains why atoms emit and successfullly predict emission for Hydrogen. 2)Explains why atoms absorb 3)Ensures the stability of atoms 4)Predicts accurately the ionisation energy for Hydrogen. Limitations: 1)Not successful for multi-electron atoms. 2)Can't explain fine structures (emission lines existing as 2 or more close lines) 3)Can't explain bonding of atoms in molecules or solids & liquids 4)Can't explain different intensity of spectral lines. 13.4 Energy changes within nuclei 13.4.1 : Einstein's mass-energy equivalence ... delta-E = delta-m x c2 ... yey ... E is in joules, and m in kilograms. 13.4.2 : term definitions... unified mass unit ... one twelfth the mass of a carbon 12 atom ... mass defect ... the amount of mass which is converted into energy in a nuclear reaction. binding energy ... the energy equivalent of the difference in mass between the nucleus of an atom, and the masses of the individual protons and neutrons which make it up. 13.4.3 : The binding energy can be calculated as described above, but finding the total mass defect between the individual nucleons, and the whole nucleus. The binding energy per nucleon is therefore, this divided by the number there are.

13.4.4 : The graph of atomic number vs binding energy per nucleon runs from Z=2 increasing rapidly (with a 3 peaks I don't think we need to worry about) to about Z=20 where it runs relatively flat at around 8 Mev per nucleon then begins to drop off after Z = 60. The higher an element is (ie the more binding energy it has) the more stable it will be, and so the most stable elements are those around Z = 20. 13.4.5 : Fission is the process by which an atom breaks up into smaller fragments. This is often caused by the addition of neutrons to the atoms, causing it to become unstable and eventually break up. This breaking up may, in some cases, produce more neutrons, and so these can then go on to produce more fission reactions, creating a chain reaction which perpetuates itself. 13.4.6 : Fission is good because it provides a lot of energy form a source that is more viable long term than fossil fuels, and because it is relatively clean in terms of air pollution compared to fossil fuels. The down side is, it produces radioactive material which must be stored somewhere, and also, it can be dangerous if not controlled properly (meltdowns and stuff...) 13.4.7 : Nuclear fusion occurs when two smaller nuclei fuse together to form one bigger, and more stable nucleus, and produce lots of energy in the process. Initiation of fusion requires a great deal of heat, because the nuclei must be given enough initial energy to overcome the coulomb repulsion between them as they approach. Energy calculations can be done using E = mc2, when the masses of the different fragments are given. 13.5 Interaction of matter and energy 13.5.1 : The explanation of the photoelectric effect is that the energy carried by light is broken into discrete units, the size of which depend on the frequency of the radiation. the energy carried in each 'photon' is defined as E = hf (plank's constant x frequency). The atoms require a certain amount of energy to release an electron, Wo = hfo. where Wo is called the work function. if there is more energy than this, then that may be given to the electron in the form of kinetic energy, and so E = hf = Wo + 1/2x m x vmax2. 13.5.2 : The photoelectric effect can be measured by applying a stopping voltage in the opposite direction to the current induced by the photoelectron emission. As the frequency of the light is increased, more energy will be required to stop these electrons. If the frequency is decreased, however, there is eventually a point where no emissions occur, and so no voltage is required. hf = hfo + eVs, where Vs is the stopping voltage.

13.5.3 : X-rays are produced by first placing an anode and cathode in a vacuum tube. Behind the anode is some type of photo-sensitive material, and between the two is a potential difference of about 150 000v. The cathode is heated to produce thermoelectrons. These electrons the accelerate towards the anode. When the electrons are deflected, by coming close to the nuclei, their kinetic energy changes. This change results in the production of an x-ray. Since the electrons can come as close or as far away from the nucleus, the x-ray spectrum is continuous, not discrete. There are, however, peaks caused by inner shell electrons being excited by small energy loss. These peaks occur on the left side of the curve, which is generally an inverted parabola type shape. There is a shortest wavelength possible for the x-rays due to the fact that when electrons lose all their kinetic energy, there is not way to make higher frequency waves. 13.5.4 : When electrons lose some of their energy, x-rays are produced...the short wavelength limit is when they lose all of it so eV = hc/lambda = 1/2 mv2. and then lambdamin = hc/eV ... there's some other stuff I should come back to. 13.5.5 : DeBroglie's equation is ... lambda = h/p. Thus, we can see that all mass has a wave equivalent, and any wave has a mass equivalent. 13.5.6 : the velocity of an electron can be found from 1/2mv2 = eV, and this can then be used in the equation mv=h/lambda, to find the electron's wavelength. This can be seen/verified by the diffraction of electrons through thin crystals, showing that electrons have a wave nature. 13.6 Particle physics 13.6.1 : Linear accelerators are designed based on a series of 'tubes' through which the particles are pulled, and then pushed by electric fields. The lengths of the tubes become longer and longer so the frequency with which the electric fields must oscillate are constant. 13.6.2 : Circular particle accelerators work on the basis of magnetic fields making the particles rotate, and when they cross between the two Ds, they are accelerated between them by a electric field. The radius inside is defined by r = mv/Bq, and so as the velocity increase, the magnetic field must be increased to keep the radius constant. 13.6.3 : When a particle having been accelerated collides with a fixed target, both usually break up into smaller fragments. These can sometimes be identified in a cloud chamber.

13.6.4 : Particle anti-particle pairs are only really produced from interactions involving great amounts of energy. Then two such particles collide, the completely annihilate, producing only energy. 13.6.5 : particle / anti particle pairs ... electrons - positrons (these are less common, but technically, electrons are the anti particle). proton - antiproton (these are the same except for charge...same as above) photon - photon (same particle)