Cherokee

Habitat The Cherokee lived in the mountains and valleys of the southern Appalachian Mountains. They moved into the area which is now present day North and South Carolina, Tennessee, northern Georgia, and Alabama. Homes The Cherokee lived in villages along the riverbanks. Each village had a council house. A council house was a large, circular, windowless building often built on a mound. The walls were made of saplings woven together then plastered with mud. The Cherokee lived in a large, rectangular wood house in the summer. In the winter the family moved to a smaller round, windowless house. They made benches for their homes. Dress The women made clothing from deerskins and plants that were woven into material. The women wore short skirts. The men wore breechcloths, leggings, and moccasins. The men liked to paint and tattoo their bodies. During the winter the Indians wore capes for warmth. These were made from rabbit fur or turkey feathers. The capes were tied over the left shoulder. The clothing was decorated with dyed porcupine quills. The Cherokee also wore jewelry made of bones and teeth. Food The Cherokee had one large garden in which they grew beans, corn, squash, pumpkins, and sunflowers. They also had small individual gardens. The women tended the gardens after the men cleared the fields and helped plant the crops. The men provided the meat for their families. They used traps, bows and arrows, blowguns, and darts to help kill game. Deer was the most important animal the men hunted. They also hunted for bear. Customs Five Civilized Tribes The Cherokee were one of the "Five Civilized Tribes". The other tribes included in this group were the Chickasaw, Choctaw, Creek, and Natchez. Approximately 20,000 people in at least 50 towns in Alabama, Georgia, and Florida were included in this group. Corn Festivals The Cherokee people had a great respect for nature. They asked the spirits of the sun, moon, starts, plants, animals, and elements to help them. Several festivals were held each year to celebrate planting and harvesting corn. During these festivals the people painted their faces white to represent happiness. Lacrosse Lacrosse was a sport played by the Chickasaws, Cherokees, and Creek tribes. The game was played in two teams with 60 players on each team. Two sticks were held by each player to catch and throw a ball. Each stick had a small thong basket at one end. No player was allowed to touch the thong leather lacrosse ball, except with the stick or basket. The object of the game was to score points by scooping up the ball in the basket and sending it through a pair of goal posts. The first team to score twenty goals was the winner. Tools/Weapons The Cherokee women wove mats and baskets. The women also planted, tended, and harvested the crops. They cooked, made clothing and pottery, and gathered nuts. The men made tools and weapons. They also built canoes. The men made tools and weapons. Weapons included tomahawks and blowguns. The hunters used blowguns for small game and birds. They built canoes and house frames and roofs.

Art The people made drums and rattles. The women made pottery and baskets.

Algonquin and Great Lake Tribes

Algonquian is a language family, which is a group of related languages. An Algonquian tribe is simply a tribe that speaks an Algonquian language. In addition to New England and the Great Lakes area, Algonquian speakers are also to be found in other parts of the Northeast, and in the Plains area. Habitat The Algonquin Indians lived in the northeast in what are now New York, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, and Delaware. This land varied from ocean beaches and marshlands to forests, rivers, valleys, and rocky highlands. The Great Lake Tribes lived beside the Great Lakes. Some area tribes included the Sauk, Shawnee, and Winnebago. Homes The Algonquins and Great Lake tribes lived in villages which usually had eight or nine hundred Indians. In the village the Indians built dome-shaped wigwams which they made from saplings covered with birch, chestnut, oak, or elm. The Indians placed bark and animal hides over the roof of their wigwams. A moose hide hung in the doorway. A pole was sewn to the bottom of the moose hide to hold the door down. Inside the wigwam cedar branches and rush mats covered the ground. Beds were made from spruce boughs covered with skins. The Algonquins sat on rolled-up skins and hides. Larger houses were also made that could house more than one family. These houses were wigwassawigamig-shaped, like a book standing on its open edge. Many villages had tall staked fences around them called palisades. When the Indians went away from their village on hunting trips they put up cone-shaped wigwams made of wooden poles and bark. Dress The Algonquin Indians made most of their clothing from elk and deer hides. They decorated it with shells, stones, seeds, paint, dyes, and porcupine quills. The men wore breechcloths and the women wore wraparound skirts. They also wore belts, leggings, and moccasins. In the winter they made fur-lined shawls and wove turkey down robes. Food The Algonquin did some farming, but were mainly hunters. They used fish to fertilize their corn fields. They tapped maple trees for sap to make sugar. The Algonquin Indians that lived on the coast had clambakes in which they ate clams, oysters, lobsters, mussels, and other shellfish. During these clambakes the Indians wrapped fish in seaweed then cooked it in a pit dug in the earth. The Great Lakes Tribes were excellent hunters, farmers, and food gatherers. They ate wild birds and game. The men hunted moose, caribou, beaver, otter, and other small animals. The women gathered nuts, greens, and berries. The women grew corn, beans, and squash. One main food was the wild rice the Indians gathered that grew in the marshlands around the Great Lakes. The Indians of the Great Lakes knocked off the grains with sticks so the rice fell into their canoes. Customs Pow Wows

Every six months the Algonquins came together for a powwow or general meeting. Each tribe brought its chief to the powwow council. The powwow was an occasion for feasting and dancing. Arguments between groups were settled, alliances formed, and trading was completed during the powwow. Snowsnake Snowsnake was a game played by the tribes of the Great Lakes. A snowsnake was a long, smooth stick of maple wood. One end was carved to look like a snake's head. To play the game the Indians packed down the snow on a long, level strip of ground. Each player slid the stick along the ground, taking turns. The one who slid the stick the farthest was the winner. Tools/Weapons The men made canoes, traps, utensils, and weapons. The Algonquian people used spears to help them catch fish and eels from the bow of a canoe. The women wove fishnets, mats, and bark containers. The Algonquian tribes of Maine and Nova Scotia made birchbark boxes decorate with porcupine quills. These were used when gathering roots and berries. Art The artists of the Great Lakes used natural objects as models for their artwork. Flowers, leaves, and stems were stitched onto bags and clothing. The Chippewa designed flowing flowers. The Winnebago embroidered simpler symmetrical floral patterns. Birchbark In the Northeastern Woodland area the Native Americans used birchbark for making many items. The outer bark of white paper-like bark was used for building canoes and for the outer covering of wigwams. Decorative items such as fans and beadwork items were also made from birchbark. Hunting and fishing gear such as arm guards and quivers were made from birchbark. Another use was bark containers. The containers were used to collect, store, cook, and even serve food or other products. The Native Americans gathered the bark from fallen trees all year long. The bark from live trees was gathered in the spring. The bark was thickest at this time of year. In the spring the bark was easy to peel itself from the tree. Pieces of the bark were laced together using basswood or dogbane cord of the thin strips of inner cedar bark or of black spruce roots. When making containers handles were constructed with willow or other branches. Dreamcatchers The Algonquian Indians hung dreamcatchers from cradleboards to protect their babies. They believed that the dreamcatcher would catch bad dreams and allow good dreams to pass through the web. Wampum Hiawatha found a method for Indians to use to help them remember messages. Shell beads were woven into designs. Each design had a special meaning. The Wampum belts were used when council chiefs met to help them remember long speeches. Later the wampum belts were used as money. These were often exchanged as signs of good faith.

Iroquois
Habitat Other names for the Iroquois are Haudenosaunee, People of the Longhouse, and the Six Nations. The Iroquois Indians lived in what is now New York State along the St. Lawrence River. The Iroquois Indians were known as the "Five Nations". The league was formed before European contact. The original five nations are Cayuga, Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, and Seneca. The Tuscarora joined later, after European contact, and became the sixth nation. Homes

The Iroquois village consisted of two or more longhouses. In the early years the longhouses were built near streams. Later they were built on hilltops for protection from invading tribes. Around the village great wooden palisades with watch towers were built. The village was moved every 10 to 15 years because crops no longer grew well. The longhouse was large enough to hold a family of 30 to 60 people. It could be 25 to 150 feet long. The longhouse was built by driving two rows of poles into the ground in zigzag lines ten or twelve feet apart. The poles were tied together at the top. Other poles were fastened across them. Next slabs of bark were tied to cover the poles. An open space was left at the top for smoke to escape. A door was built at the end of the long house. The door was covered with a curtain made from animal skins. Inside the longhouse a wide path ran though the center. Each family had a space about six by nine feet for a personal area. The family space was separated from the rest on the longhouse by leather curtains. In the personal space a seat was built against the wall. Clothes and tools were stored under the seat. The seat was also used as a bed. The bed was covered with corn husk mats and then skins and furs. Dress The Iroquois made most of their clothing from deerskin. The women wore skirts, vests, and moccasins. They decorated their clothes with porcupine quills, shell beads, and dyed hair. The women also made necklaces of shell beads and animal teeth. The women in the northern areas wore leggings and breechcloths. In the winter they wore rabbit fur capes or shawls tied over the left shoulder. The Iroquois men wore deerskin breechcloths during the hot summer. In the cold weather they wore leather leggings and tunics. The men wore moccasins made of leather or corn husks. Food The Iroquois men hunted deer and other game. Boys were allowed to join the men in hunting after they had killed a deer by themselves. Farming determined the way the Indians lived. The Iroquois moved to new locations when their large fields no longer produced a good crop of beans, corn, and squash. They called beans, squash, and corn "The Three Sisters". The women tended the crops. One favorite food of the Iroquois was corn cakes. It was made by patting corn into round cakes then baking it. Customs Confederacy The Conferacy was made up of six groups: Cayuga, Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Seneca, and Tuscarora. They called themselves Iroquois. They were big rivals with the Algonquians. White men called this group the League of Six Nations. Festivals The Iroquois Indians held six big festivals each year. Each festival lasted several days. During these festivals music was made by shaking rattles and beating drums. Rattles were made from gourds and turtle shells. The festivals included the New Year Festival in the winter, the Maple Festival in spring, the Corn Planting Festival, the Strawberry Festival, the Green Corn Festival, and the Harvest Festival of Thanksgiving. The festivals were held to give thanks to the good spirits for health, clothes, food, and happiness. Women held a powerful position in the Iroquois tribe. They owned longhouses, controlled the land, and chose the chief. Children belonged to their mother's clan. When a man married, he lived with his wife's clan. False Society Masks An injured or ill Iroquois Indian would sometimes ask the False Face Society to drive away the spirit of the illness or injury. The False Face Society wore masks carved from wood. After a new member joined the False Face Society he had to make his own mask. To make the mask the Iroquois walked through the woods until he found a tree whose spirit talked to him. After talking to the tree, the Indian built a fire. He sprinkled tobacco, and then stripped bark from the tree.

Next the Indian outlined a face and cut out the section to the tree he had outlined. Then the Iroquois went into a secluded shelter to carve the mask. The mask was polished then decorated with hair, feathers, etc. Bowl Game The Iroquois Indians played the Sacred Bowl Game during the last day of the "Ceremonial of Midwinter" which marked the end of the year. The wooden bowl was decorated with four clan symbols - the bear, wolf, turtle, and deer. To play the game a player placed the six nuts which were colored on one side inside the bowl and hit the bowl against the ground. If five of the six pits turned up the same color, the player scored and took another turn. The first player to reach 10 points wins the game. Tools and Weapons The men made canoes, houses, and tools. Snowshoes made winter hunting easier for the Iroquois. They traveled up to 50 miles a day wearing the snowshoes in deep snow. The Iroquois also wore snowshoes in ritual dances. Art Sometimes the Indians wore corn husks masks or painted their faces to frighten away the evil spirits. The False Face Society was a group of medicine men who wore frightening masks made of wood. They were thought to posses special powers when they put on their masks.

Seminoles
Habitat The Seminole developed from the Creek Confederacy, mostly from the Creek and Hitchiti tribes. They settled in Florida which was then Spanish territory. Homes The Seminole built their homes on higher ground in the swampland. In the center of the village was the Great House. The Great House was made up of four low, bark-covered houses build around a square courtyard. Each house was assigned to a warrior who helped the chief called Miko. Meetings were held in the Great House. A round Council House was built on higher ground near one corner of the Great House. Miko and the warriors met in the Council to make decisions. One large house in each village was used as the cook house. It had a raised floor which covered half of the building. Walls made of bark were built underneath the floor for a safe, cool room to store food. The roof was high so that fires could be kept burning at all times. Families lived in homes called chickees. The chickees had no outside or inside walls. The house was made by driving big logs into the ground between posts. The floor was made of long poles covered with cypress bark and palm leaves. The roof was made of poles covered with bark and leaves. The roof sloped down on each side from the center. A ladder was used for climbing up to the floor. Fires were built outside the house. Dress In the early years the Seminoles wore little clothing except during ceremonies. The men wore full skirts or long wide-sleeved shirts that hung from their necks to their knees. The men wore soft high-topped moccasins. Headdresses were made of squares of wool folded cornerwise into bands about three inches wide. The bands wound around the head until it was as much as seven inches thick. This was to protect the eyes from the hot sun. The women wore short blouses. They made skirts by sewing strips of bright colored cloth. Woven slashes were worn around the waist. The women went barefooted. Food The Creek Indians were primarily farmers. They raised corn, squash, peanuts, sweet potatoes, and melons. Each family had its own garden. All members of the tribe helped plant, cultivate, and harvest the

crops. They also gathered seeds, berries, and nuts. Blowguns were used to hunt small game and birds. The men hunted fowl, turtles, fish, shellfish, and deer. The Indians ate many fruits including bananas, oranges, pineapples, and coconuts. All parts of the palmetto palm tree were used for food. The top was eaten. Molasses was made from the berries. The leaves were ground into flour. Even salt was gathered from the burned trunk of the tree. Customs Creek Confederacy The Seminoles were originally part of the Creek Confederacy. After losing their home to white settlers, part of the Creek Confederacy moved to Florida. There the Indians banded together and formed a new tribe. Festivals The Green Corn Festival was celebrated by the Southeastern Creek Indians. Each person sat in a large circle and drank a bad tasting black drink which made them sick. The drink was then taken away. The Indians washed themselves in the stream making themselves feel clean inside and outside. Next they confessed wrongdoings to the Great Miko. Then the people were given more of the black drink and sent into hot, steam-filled palm leaf tents. The Indians stayed until the Great Spirit had forgiven their wrongdoings. This was followed by a festival which lasted four to eight days. During the festival the Indians played games, danced, and sang. Tools/Weapons Dugout canoes Art Each year a women was given a string of beads on her birthday. One new string was added each year until the women turned 40 years old. The necklaces covered the women's neck up to her ears and chin. When the women became 40 years old she began to lay one strand of beads aside year by year until only one strand was left. The Seminole women never went into public without the necklaces. Both the men and women of the Seminole tribes decorated their bodies with tattoos and body painting.

Navajo
Habitat The Navajo lived in what is now northwestern New Mexico and northeastern Arizona. This land contained peaks, grasslands, deserts, and canyons. The Navajo were a nomadic group of people until they came into contact with the Pueblo. They adopted some of the beliefs and customs of the Pueblo including farming, making pottery, and weaving. Homes The Navajo lived in homes called hogans. Hogans were round houses built with forked sticks. The sticks were covered with brush, packed earth, hides, and whatever was available. The front door of the hogan always faced east to catch the first light of the morning sun. Later the Navajo built a six-sided hogan of logs and mud. The hogan always had only one room. Some had tables, chairs, beds, and wood-burning stoves. Outside the home a loom for weaving was set up. It was brought indoors only in the winter. A corral for the herd of sheep was close by the hogan. Homes were far apart from each other. The Navajo blessed their homes in a special ceremony to bring it good luck and happiness. Dress

The Navajo make their clothing from deerskin. The men wore breechcloths and leggings. The women wore deerskin dresses. Both wore moccasins. After the 1800s the Navajo men borrowed the style of the Mexicans and wore blankets draped over one shoulder. Their pants ended halfway between their knees and ankles. They decorated the seams of their pants with silver buttons. The women also borrowed the Mexican style of dressing. The women wore woolen dresses made with two blankets stitched together at their shoulders. The women carried their babies in cradle boards, sometimes strapped to their backs. Later the women traded for calico and made big, full skirts. Traditional women would wear a traditional dress made of cotton material, having three to four tears in the skirt. Her shirt is typically made of velvet or crushed velvet adorned with coin buttons. She will also wear two types of traditional belts, either at the same time or one at a time. That decision is usually made based on the type of event or reason for dressing traditional. The first belt is a woven belt is named sash belt, the second, a leather belt, which is worn on top of the sash; this is called a Concho belt. The women have no head dresses, rather a Navajo bun positioned on the back of the head. A traditional man would wear cotton pants, a Concho belt, and velvet or crushed velvet shirt. A man and wife will usually wear matching outfits. The only traditional head dress worn is worn by a man. Aside from the Navajo bun, positioned in the back of the head, there would be a scarf, folded to make a long thin (belt looking) scarf. This would be tied above one ear. Food The Navajo were primarily hunters and trappers. They hunted deer, pronghorn antelope, and rabbits. They raided the Pueblo and stole their crops. Later they became farmers and sheep raisers. They grew watermelons, corn, beans, and squash. They also gathered wild plants, seeds, roots, and berries. Customs The Navajo believed in many gods. The most powerful god was Sun Bearer and one of his wives, Changing Women. The land of the Navajo was marked off by four sacred mountains: White Mountains, turquoise Blue Mountain, Yellow Mountain, and jet Black Mountain. The sand painting was constructed on the floor of the hogan by sifting various powdered herbs, sand and other powdery material. The sick person was given a special herb to drink and told to sit in the center of the dry painting. The shaman touched the head of the figure then touched the patients had and chanted. This was repeated with each part of the body. The sand painting was removed before sundown and buried beneath trees that stood to the north, south, east, and west of the hogan. If the patient died his/her body was taken out a new door broken through the north side of the hogan and burned. Art Around 1600 the Navajo women began to spin and weave wool. The sheep belonged to the women and the horses belonged to the men. The women sheared the sheep. Navajo women learned from the Pueblo how to weave. The early rugs they made were usually striped straight across. Later the women learned to weave a stripe on a slant and to make a diamond shaped design. The first rugs the Navajo made were dyed with leaves, berries, and insects. The frame of the loom was made of four long poles and set up outdoors except in the winter. The rug or blanket was never wholly completed or perfect because the Navajos believed it would offend the spirits. Silversmithing The Navajo started silverwork in the late 1800s. First they hammered Spanish and Mexican coins into silver buttons. The buttons were sewn onto their clothing and cut off when money was needed. After the Treaty of 1868 the Navajo people were given specialized tools for silver smiting. After this they began making jewelry with turquoise stones.

Apache
Habitat The Apache Indians lived in what is now New Mexico and Arizona. They were a nomadic group of people and would at times travel as far south as Mexico. Homes Because the Apache was a wandering group they spent their time in two homes, one in the mountains and one in the desert. They lived in one place for only short periods of time then moved. The women built their homes called wickiups. The wickiup was a small dome-shaped hut. It was not sturdy. A mother and daughter could build the wickiup in a few hours. First they found a level spot. They drew a circle about eight feet across on the spot. Next the women dug a small trench beside the circle. Then thin poles of oak or willow trees were placed in an upright position in the trench to make the frame for the wickiup. The tops of the poles were pulled together and tied with strands of yucca. The top of the wickiup was only five or six feet high in the center. In cold weather an opening was left at the top of the hut so smoke could escape from the fires. Outside the wickiup was covered with bundles of grass and branches. Dress In the early years of the Apache they made their clothing from deer hide. They soaked the hide in water then stretched and rubbed it to make it soft. The men wore breechcloths and moccasins in warm weather. In cold weather they wore shirts that came almost to their knees. The moccasins reached to their knees or above with the soles covered with rough, untreated animal skin. The men wore a simple headband of deerskin. Later the Apache men wore vests like the Mexicans and Americans. The women wore skirts in the warm weather and simple dresses in the cold weather. The edges of the dresses were fringed and sometimes decorated with dried porcupine quills. They wore their hair straight instead of the more common braided style of many Native Americans. Later they began wearing Mexican clothing made of colorful cotton. Food The Apache did not farm. They lived on a variety of wild plants. The women gathered the plants. Favorites were the yucca and mescal plants. The women harvested the yucca plant in the spring and they gathered the mescal plant in late spring. The mescal plant was a large leafed plant that grew in the shape of a cabbage head and tasted like squash. The women steamed many plants in a deep pit that was filled with stone. A fire was built in a pit lined with stones. Then when extremely hot the fire was allowed to burn down. Next yucca and mescal plants were piled on the hot stones then covered with wet grass. The plants were left for much of the day. Some to the steamed food was dried for the cold season. The Apache also ate arrowhead, wild onions, and berries. The berries were pounded into small cakes and dried in the sun. The Apache gathered many kinds of nuts. A favorite nut was the pinion. The Apache buried their food for the winter. The men spent most of their time hunting deer, antelope, elk, and sometimes buffalo. They also ate prairie dogs, squirrels, and rabbits. The Apache would not touch fish or any animal that lived in the water. Before horses in the 1700s the men hunted on foot. Customs Apaches believed that everything in nature had special power. Some animals were possessed by evil spirits or ghosts. Those animals were bears, owls, and coyotes. The crow was a sign of good luck. They believed in the Great Spirit. Legends say the Great Spirit was sent mountain spirits to show the Apache

how to live a good life. The mountain spirits called Ganhs taught the Apaches many ceremonies and chants to overcome disease. After the Apaches ignored the Ganhs teachings they became upset and disappeared into the mountains. Apaches acted out the Gahns and performed ceremonial dances to bring them back. The Apaches believed the dancers could absorb illnesses in a wand and blow it away with the wind as the dancers moved. Art The women packed all their possession each time they traveled to a new home in baskets. The baskets could hold heavy loads. They hung the baskets across their backs and shoulders. The baskets were made from different plants, reeds, and herbs. The Apache mainly used yucca leaves, willow reeds, or juniper bark. Flowers from plants were used to make dyes for painting designs on the baskets. They Apaches used the coiling and twining technique.

Pueblo
Habitat The Pueblos lived in villages near rivers in the Southwest. This area covers what is now Utah and Colorado through Arizona and New Mexico into parts of Texas and California. The land varies between steep-walled canyons, plateaus, and sandy deserts. To the south are mountains. Four rivers run through this area: the Rio Grande, Colorado, Gila, and Salt. The days in this area are hot and the nights are cold. Rain is uncommon except during the rainy season which lasts about six weeks during the summer. Homes In their early history the Pueblos slept in natural caves and on cliffs. About the year 700 they began to build homes out of sand and adobe next to rivers. The homes called pueblos were also built on mesas, cliffs, and in canyons. The village was built around the kiva. The kiva was a round building with steps going up to the roof entrance. The men met in the kiva to discuss problems and to worship. The houses were owned by the women. Logs from long trees were used to support the roof. Each family lived in a room that was only 12 by 24 feet in size. The outer walls were built first. Poles were then placed on top of the outer walls. Next willow branches were piled on the beams that supported the roof. A layer of grass and weeds followed then a layer of earth. Houses shared walls and were often stacked on top of each other. Ones porch was often the roof of the house below. Ovens were built on roofs. Doors and windows were small to keep out the heat. The Pueblos entered their homes by ladders through the roof. The ladders could be moved if enemies attacked. Inside the pueblo, ledges on walls were used as shelves. The people sat on blankets. Beds were rugs or sheepskins. The Pueblo village had about 500 people or less living in it. Dress The Pueblo men dressed in kilts of cotton. They wore ankle-high moccasins. For warmth they used wool or cotton blankets. Around their waists were branded cotton sashes. Rabbit-fur and turkey-feather robes were also wore. The women wore cotton or wool dresses with one shoulder free. They dressed in embroidered cotton or wool shawls and sashes. For warmth the women used wool robes and high moccasins boots. Food The Pueblos were mostly vegetarians, but they would eat meat when it was available. They hunted for small game such as rabbit, gopher, and squirrel. They also hunted large game such as deer, antelope, and mountain lions. The main crop the Pueblo raised was corn. Corn consisted of eighty percent of their diet. Each community had a sun watcher to let everyone in the village know when to plant seeds and harvest

the crops. To get water to their crops the Pueblo would sometimes go to the top of a snowy hill and roll a giant snowball to the village. They also used an irrigation system. The Pueblo shared fields in which they grew corn and squash, but they also grew individual family gardens. In the individual gardens, they raised other vegetables such as peppers, onions, chilies, and tobacco. Corn was dried and ground to be stored. Customs The Pueblo thought Kachinas were ancestral spirits who returned with the clouds and rain to help their people. Over 300 different Kachinas were believed to exist. Pueblo Indians believed that these spirits once lived among the people, but they became offended when not enough attention was paid to them. Before leaving the Kachinas taught their people to dance. Pueblo held religious festivals and ceremonies in which they asked the Kachinas to bring rain and make their crops grow. They used drums and rattles in the dances during the ceremonies. They often danced in masks and chanted. When a boy turned 13, he was invited to the kiva where the identity of the Kachinas was revealed to him. Girls were not brought to the kiva, but they were also told the secret of the Kachina. Tools/Weapons The men hunted rabbits by throwing boomerang-shaped sticks at them. The men also made tools, utensils, and jewelry. The women made pottery and baskets. The women use a grinding stone to grind the corn into a powder. They used this for making bread and mush. Art Common symbols used in Pueblo art were birds, butterflies, bear claws, snakes, lizards, spiders, clouds, whirlwinds, and rainbows. Symbols that represented the four directions were also used. These designs were used to decorate coiled pottery. Weaving and baskets were also done with these designs. Over 300 Kachina designs were used in the Pueblo artwork. Each Kachina represented a spirit. Kachinas Children were given dolls that looked like Kachinas to play with when they were young. The main reason for this was so the children would not be frighten when they saw the men in the tribe dress like the Kachinas during ceremonies.

Northwest Coastal Indians

Habitat The Northwest Coastal Indians lived in what is now Alaska along the Pacific Ocean down the coast to Northern California. This was a rugged strip of land with many small islands, deep inlets, and narrow beaches. The mountains rise to the shore in many places. Thick forests of spruce, cedar, and fir dominate the area supplying and endless supply of wood. Many rivers and streams cross the land. By the 1750s more than 100,000 Indians lived in this area because it was richer in natural resources than any other area of North America. Homes Most villages consisted of large rectangular houses. Each housed 30 to 40 people. They were made by covering large beams with planked sides gabled in the north. The posts were often decorated with carved figures. The earth floors were divided by woven mats into family units. Several families lived in one of

these large structures. Each family was allowed a space about the size of a barn stall. Each family had its own fire, but cook fires in the center of the building were shared. Farther south the homes had low conical roofs. In the north sweat houses were built for both men and women, and for men only in the south. Large totem poles carved from tree trunks stood in front of the homes. The totem poles showed the titles of the head of the household. Dress The Northwest Coastal Indians wore little clothing. Except for on long journeys they went barefooted. The men wore basketry or fur hats. They wore fiber rain capes and skin robes. The men wore breech clouts. The men tattooed their arms and hands for measuring dentalium. Dentalium was a shell that was strung together and used as money. The women living in the Washington area wore fringed cedar-bark or goatskin skirts. In other places the women wore fiber string aprons or fore-and-aft skin aprons. The women wore basketry hats, rain capes, sleeveless jackets, and some skin robes. Some women tattooed their chins. The fiber clothing was made from woven strips of bark. Food The Northwest Coastal Indians could catch enough fish during the summer salmon run to feed themselves for the whole winter. The Indians also caught a variety of food from the sea including halibut and cod. They ate clams, crabs, seals, sea otters, sea lions, fish, herring eggs, and mussels, sea urchins, and seaweed. The men hunted land animals including bear, caribou, deer, elk, and moose. The Nuu-chahnulth (Nootka)/Makah and to a lesser extent the Haida also caught whales. In some areas mountain goats could be found. The women gathered roots, berries, and seaweed for salt, nuts, fungus, acorns, and camas bulbs. Blueberries and huckleberries were some of the favorite berries. While most tribes lives on the coast during the summer months, when winter came many moved their camps to a more protected area like up a river or inlet. Customs The Northwest Coastal tribes occasionally gathered together for a potlatch. The person hosting the potlatch gave away as many gifts to his guests as he could. This showed he was wealthy. These ceremonies could last for days. Singing, dancing, and story-telling were part of the celebration. The Northwest Coastal Indians took slaves. Slaves were a sign of wealth. Children were kept close to their camp for fear that they would be stolen by another tribe and become a slave. Tools/Weapons Only two tribes of Northwest Coastal Indians, The Makah and Nootka, hunted for food in the sea. They built great seagoing canoes. Some were more than 60 feet long. They built the canoes from the trunks of huge cedar and redwood trees. The canoes could hold as many as 60 men. The Makah and Nootka often carved elaborate pictures and painted designs on their canoes. The Inuit built large boats called an umiak. The umiak was about 30 feet in length. When a whale was spotted the chief was the first to strike it with his harpoon. Then the others joined in. After the whale died, the Indians tied its mouths shut so the whales lungs couldnt fill with water. The whale would become heavy and sink if this were to happen. The whale was then towed back to shore. Once the whale was pulled to shore, it was cut up. The meat was divided. The whale also was a source of oil and the bones were used for various tools. An entire tribe could live for a whole year on two to four whales.

Art The Northwest Indians believed that each of their clans was closely related to a particular animal. Common animals were the raven, thunderbird, eagle, wolf, killer whale, and bear. These animals were used as designs for many objects. The designs were sometimes flattened or bent to the shape of the object it was being placed on. Parts of the animals were drawn in squared ovals and solid, curved u-shaped sections. The Northwest Coastal Indians carved and painted wooden masks. These were used in dances during ceremonies. The dances acted out legends of ancestors and family origins. Sometimes the masked dancers appeared through trap doors or swung through the air on rope to look like they were flying. The ceremonies were held in elaborate settings. When the dancers put on masks they took on the personality of the spirit the mask represented.

Plains
Habitat The Plains Indians lived in the area from the Mississippi River to the Rocky Mountains and from Canada to Mexico. The most important tribes were the Sioux, Blackfoot, Cheyenne, Crow, Kiowa, and Comanche. The plains area was hotter than 100 degrees in the summer, and could drop to 40 degrees below zero with heavy snows in the winter. The region was so dry that when it rained it often flooded. The rolling land was covered with grassland and a few mountains. The Black Hills were high and steep. Few Indians lived on the Great Plains before white men brought the horse in the 1600s. Homes Before white men came to America most of the Plains Indians lived along the rivers and streams where the land was fertile. In their villages the Indians lived in earth lodges. They were made of frames of logs covered with brush and dirt. When hunting the Indians lived in teepees. Occasionally they built wigwams. The wigwams protected the teepee from rotting. The wigwam was used to store food. To build the teepee the women took long poles and stuck them in the ground in the form of a circle. They leaned the poles together at the top. The poles were fastened with hides. The poles were covered with buffalo hides. Two longer poles were attached to the top corners. They were used to remove the smoke from the fire. The teepee opening always faced east. The outside of the teepee was decorated with paintings of animals, stars, or other objects. The Plains Indians had little furniture. Their beds were made from buffalo robes, skins with the hair left on. They also had back rests. Food, clothes, and belongings were stored in parfleches. A parfleche was a strong pouch made of buffalo hide. Dress The women made their clothing from buffalo hides and deerskin. Boys wore nothing until the age of 10 then they began wearing breech clouts. A breech clout was a deerskin stretched between the legs and fastened to by a leather belt in the back and the front. In cold weather the men put on robes and high boots made from buffalo hides. The young girls wore breech clouts. When they reached adolescence they began

wearing loosely-fitting, long-sleeved dresses stitched together with deerskin and decorated with fringe, beads, and small pieces of metal. Both men and women painted their bodies, faces, and scalps with brightly colored paints made from clay and juices of berries and fruits. The men pierced their ears. Men wore their hair long and separated it into two braids that were decorated with strips of fur, leather, or a single feather. The women cut their hair much shorter than the men. Food The Plains Indians hunted buffalo and other game such as elk and antelope. To capture them they would surround the herd or try to stamp the herds off cliffs or into areas where they could be killed more easily. Life for the Plains Indians was much easier after horses. The Indians hunted with bows and arrows even after the European traders brought guns. The Indians hunted all year long. Because the buffalo was so plentiful the Indian hunters were not limited in the number of buffalo they killed. The buffalo was roasted over a fire, dried in the sun and made into jerky, and made into pemmican. Pemmican was made by pounding dried meat into powder and mixing it with melted fat and berries. The Plains Indians ate berries, cherries, wild greens, camas roots, and wild prairie turnip with the meat. Customs Great Spirit or Wakan Tanka The Plains Indians believed in the Great Spirit. The Indians believed the Great Spirit had power over all things including animals, trees, stones, and clouds. The earth was believed to be the mother of all spirits. The sun had great power also because it gave the earth light and warmth. The Plains Indians prayed individually and in groups. They believed visions in dreams came from the spirits. The medicine man or shaman was trained in healing the sick and interpreting signs and dreams. Vision Quests When a boy became a man he would seek a spirit that would protect him for the rest of his life. First the boy went into the sweat lodge. Inside the lodge stones were heated and then water was poured over the stones to produce steam. The boy prayed as the hot steam purified his body. After the sweat lodge the boy jumped into cold water. Next he was taken to a remote place and left without food and water. The boy wore only his breech clout and moccasins. For the next three or four days the boy prayed for a special vision. The men of the tribe came to help the boy back to the camp. After cleaning up and eating the boy was taken to the shaman who interpreted his vision. Sometimes the boy was given an adult name taken from the vision. After the shaman interpreted the dream the village had a feast to celebrate the boy becoming a man. The Sun Dance The Sun Dance was a very important ceremony among the Plains Indians. It lasted for several days. Before the ceremony the Indians would fast. The camp was set up in a circle of teepees. A tree was cut and set up in the center of the space to be used for the dance. Ropes made of hair or leather thongs were fastened to the top of the pole. Men tied these ropes to sticks which were stuck through the flesh of their chests or backs. The men danced, gazing at the sun, whistling through pipes, and pulling back on the ropes until the sticks torn through the flesh. Tools/Weapons The buffalo was very valuable to the Plains Indians. The buffalo meat was dried and mixed with marrow and fruit to become a food that would keep for long periods of time. The Indians used hides to make ropes, shields, and clothing. The teepee was also made from the buffalo hide. Sinew or muscle was used to make bowstrings, moccasins, and bags. The bones were used to make hoes and runners for dog sleds. The horns were made into utensils such as a spoon, cup, or bowl. Even the hair could be made into rope.

A parfleche was used by the Plains Indians to carry their possessions. It was made from a buffalo hide. The hide was cut into a large rectangular shape. Belongings were placed on the center of the hide. Next the hide was folded like and envelope and tied with rawhide straps. The parfleche was made water proof by covering it with glue made by boiling the tails of beavers. Art The artists of the Plains used buffalo hides for their artwork. The hides were made into clothing, houses, beds, shields, belts, moccasins, and folded envelopes used for storage called parfleches. These objects were painted or beaded in geometric patterns. Stripes, diamonds, crosses, arrows, hour-glass shapes, thunderbirds, stars and hunting scenes were often used. Medicine Bundles and Pipes The Plains Indians carried bags of such things as animal and bird skins, pipes, dried herbs, and tobacco. They believed these objects to have special powers. Two of the most important bundles were the pipe bundle and the beaver bundle. The beaver bundle always contained the skin of the beaver along with skins of other animals. Some had feathers of birds, rattles, and other objects. The bundles were used in healing and opened at certain times such as when the first thunder was heard in the spring. The pipe bundle contained tobacco to be used in pipes. Some of the ancient pipes were as long as a mans arm. Many pipes were like a huge cigarette holder. Some of the pipes were made of wood and others were made of a special kind of stone. The pipes were decorated with carving. Two types of pipes were made. The peace pipe could be carried across enemy territory and would assure safe passage for the carrier. The war pipe had red feathers signifying blood and was passed around and smoked before a battle was to take place.

Inuit
Habitat The Arctic region of North America stretches 5000 miles from the Bering Strait to Greenland. The January temperatures often drop to -40 Fahrenheit. The land is flat except for the central Alaska area. Homes Permanent home were made of stone and earth. They were built partially underground. Whale ribs sometimes supported the roof. Temporary winter hunting lodges called igloos were made from snow and ice. The Inuit formed a circular foundation of ice blocks. They stacked smaller blocks to create a dome at the top. A small hole was left for ventilation. Gaps in the ice blocks were filled with soft snow and the inside was lined with furs. Dress Warm clothing was important to the Inuit tribes. Sealskin was usually worn in the summer. In the winter caribou skin was worn. Caribou skin was light weight yet very warm. Clothing was also made of other skins including those of musk oxen, polar bears, and birds. The women skinned the animals and made the clothing. The women used bones for needles and gut thread. Both men and women wore hooded tunics and trousers over long boots. The women's tunics were made very large so she could carry her baby inside the tunic. Food The walrus seal, and other fur-bearing sea mammals supply food and clothing to the Inuit. All parts of the animals were used. Parkas were made of seal-skin. The walrus hide was made into boats.

In the winter seals were harpooned at their breathing holes in the ice. A hunter might have to stand still for hours waiting for the seal to come up for air. In the summer the seals came out of the water to sun themselves. The hunter can crawl close to the seal and throw a harpoon to kill the seal. In late summer the caribou were hunted. Inuit hunters made camp near the caribou grazing grounds. They would ambush the slow-moving herd with bows and arrows. Customs The Arctic people are closely connected to nature. Their tradition believes that every being has a spirit and must be treated with respect. Tools/Weapons Umiaks Umiaks were large open boats. Kayaks The kayak was a light canoe. It was made by stretching skins over a wooden framework. Harpoons The Inuit used several kinds of harpoons and spears. Large harpoons were used to hunt the walrus. Smaller spears were used for hunting small animals and birds. Wooden spear throwers were used to increase the spear's power. All spear throwers were individually made for the hunter. The length of the thrower was equal to the distance between the hunters forefinger and his elbow. This gave the hunter and extra arm joint. Dog Sleds Dog sleds were a means of transportation. Art Inuit artists created simple animals, birds, and scenes of daily life and travel. These were often appliqud to caribou and sealskin. Stone sculptures of animals such as the wolf, polar bear, birds, reindeer, and walrus were also common. Scrimshaw was a famous technique used by the Inuit. The Inuit engraved pictures that told stories in ivory and then rubbed the carving with lampblack.

California and Intermountain Seed Gathers

Habitat The California Indians lived in what is now California between the Rocky Mountains and Sierra Nevada. This area had a mild climate and an abundance of food. The California had one of the largest populations in North America west of the Great Plains. Over 200,000 Indians lived in California. Between 1851 and 1852, eighteen treaties with the United States were signed by around 400 chiefs. They gave up 75 million acres of land. After this thousands died from disease and hunger. Their population was reduced to 15,000. The Intermountain Indians lived in the Great Basin between California and the Rocky Mountains. This land was mostly deserted. This region had only a small number of Indians living in it.

Homes The people settled in small villages. Depending on where they lived, their homes were either round or rectangular huts. The river tribes lived in dome-shaped huts sometimes covered with earth. The southern tribes built huts with poles and covered them with rush mats or layers of rushes or grass. The central tribes lived in semi-underground homes. These homes were had a conical roof covered with bark. The central tribes also lived in thatched roundhouses. The huts varied in size and could hold from one family to many related families. All villages had a sweat lodge, where the men met and slept. The sweat lodge was made by digging a hole in the ground and covering the top with dirt. The women and children slept in the huts in the winter. During the summer mats supported by poles or brush were used as shelter. Some villages had a large structure made of earth and grass. This structure was used for councils and ceremonies. Dress Men wore loincloths or no clothing in the summer. The women wore short skirts made of fibers from bark, grass, tulle, and sometimes deerskin. In the winter capes that hung down to the skirts were worn. Both men and women went barefoot except during snow. Skin moccasins were worn during the winter. Fur and fiber blankets were also wore during the winter. Tattooing was used as a substitute for clothes for some southern tribes. Food The California area was rich in natural resources. The main foods included wild plants, seeds, and nuts. The people also ate grasshoppers, caterpillars, and grubs. The California tribes were hunters and gathers. The men fished, trapped, and hunted. The women gathered food. The men caught fish with hooks and spears. The people who lived in the coastal regions ate shellfish, dolphins, porpoises, and whales. Acorns were used by the California tribes. They ground them into flour, and then washed away the bitter acid. The flour was mixed with clean water. It was cooked over hot rocks to cook it into mush. The mush was eaten alone or mixed with berries. Sometimes it was molded into a cake and baked. Food was scarce in the Great Basin area. Few animals lived there because it was too dry for most wild plants. The Indians moved about in small bands to search for food. They hunted antelope, birds, and deer. They also ate rats, snakes, grasshoppers, lizards, grubs, and roots. Customs This group of Indians feared spirits of the dead. No one spoke the name of a dead person in case the spirit might think someone was calling it back to the earth. The Indians burned a dead man's house, body, and belongings so that the ghost could not use them. Tools/Weapons

The California tribes made money by breaking shells into small rounded beads. They strung the beads in groups. Baskets were woven so tightly that water could be carried in them. The Pomo tribe was the most skilled at weaving the baskets.

Art The California tribes were known for their beautiful baskets. The baskets were used as traps, tools, cradles, gifts, and storage containers. Both men and women wove the baskets using a variety of techniques and patterns. They were decorated with beads, shells, and tiny feathers.