Process Control

F s ( )
s
s
2
2
+
=
1
2
1
s i
1
s i +
+
|
\
|
.
=
s i s + i +
2 s i
( )
s i +
( )
=
2 s
2 s
2
2
+
( )
=
s
s
2
2
+
=
1
2
1
s i
e
s i ( )t

0
1
s i +
e
s i + ( )t

0
+
(
(
=
1
2
0
t e
s i ( )t
d
0
t e
s i + ( )t
d +
(
(
(
=
F s ( )
0
t cos t e
st
d =
0
t
e
i t
e
i t
2
e
st
(
(
(
d = f t ( ) cos t = (c)
F s ( )
1
s a +
=
F s ( )
0
t e
at
e
st
d =
0
t e
s a + ( )t
d =
1
s a +
e
s a + ( )t

0
=
1
s a +
=
where a is constant f t ( ) e
at
= (b)
F s ( )
1
s
2
=
F s ( )
t
s
e
st

0
1
s
0
t e
st
d + = 0 0
1
s
2
e
st

0
=
1
s
2
=
v
1
s
e
st
= du dt =
dv e
st
dt = u t = By parts: F s ( )
0
t t e
st
d = f t ( ) t = (a)
F s ( )
0
t f t ( ) e
st
d =
Problem 2-1. Derivation of Laplace transforms from its definition
Smith & Corripio, 3rd. edition
(d) f t ( ) e
at
coss t =
F s ( )
0
t e
at
cos t e
st
d =
0
t e
at e
i t
e
i t
+
2
e
st
(
(
(
d =
1
2
0
t e
s a + i + ( )t
d
0
t e
s a + i ( ) t
d +
(
(
(
=
1
2
1
s a + i +
e
s a + i + ( )t

0
1
s a + i
e
s a + i ( )t

0
+
(
(
=
1
2
1
s a + i +
1
s a + i
+
|
\
|
.
=
s a + i s + a + i +
2 s a + i +
( )
s a + i
( )
=
2 s a + ( )
2 s a + ( )
2
2
+
=
s a +
s a + ( )
2
2
+
= F s ( )
s a +
s a + ( )
2
2
+
=
All the results match results in Table 2-1.1
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is unlawful.
1
s
1
s 2 +
+ 2
1
s 1 +
=
1
s
1
s 2 +
+
2
s 1 +
=
F s ( )
1
s
1
s 2 +
+
2
s 1 +
=
Used the linearity property.
(d) f t ( ) u t ( ) e
t
t e
t
+ = F s ( ) L u t ( ) ( ) L e
t
( )
L t e
t
( )
+ =
1
s
1
s 1 +
1
s 1 + ( )
2
+ =
F s ( )
1
s
1
s 1 +
1
s 1 + ( )
2
+ =
(e) f t ( ) u t 2 ( ) 1 e
2 t 2 ( )
sin t 2 ( )
= Let g t ( ) u t ( ) 1 e
2 t
sin t
( )
= Then f t ( ) g t 2 ( ) =
F s ( ) e
2 s
G s ( ) = e
2 s 1
s
1
s 2 + ( )
2
1 +
(
(
=
Used the real translation theorem and linearity. F s ( ) e
2 s 1
s
1
s 2 + ( )
2
1 +
(
(
=
is unlawful.
Smith & Corripio, 3rd edition
Problem 2-2. Derive Laplace transforms from the properties and Table 2-1.1
(a) f t ( ) u t ( ) 2 t + 3 t
2
+ = F s ( ) L u t ( ) 2 t + 3 t
2
+
( )
= L u t ( ) ( ) 2 L t ( ) + 3 L t
2
( )
+ =
1
s
2
1
s
2
+ 3
2!
s
3
+ = F s ( )
1
s
2
s
2
+
6
s
3
+ =
(b) f t ( ) e
2 t
u t ( ) 2 t + 3 t
2
+
( )
= F s ( ) L u t ( ) 2 t + 3 t
2
+
( )
s 2 +
=
1
s
2
s
2
+
6
s
3
+
|
\
|
. s 2 +
=
1
s 2 +
2
s 2 + ( )
2
+
6
s 2 + ( )
3
+ =
F s ( )
1
s 2 +
2
s 2 + ( )
2
+
6
s 2 + ( )
3
+ =
Used the complex translation theorem.
(c) f t ( ) u t ( ) e
2 t
+ 2e
t
= F s ( ) L u t ( ) e
2 t
+ 2 e
t

( )
= L u t ( ) ( ) L e
2 t
( )
+ 2 L e
t
( )
=
Must apply L'Hopital's rule:
s
1
1
2
2 s 2 + ( )
+
6
3 s 2 + ( )
2
+
(
(
1 = lim
Final value:
t
e
2 t
u t ( ) 2 t + 3t
2
+
( )
0 = lim
0 s
s
1
s 2 +
2
s 2 + ( )
2
+
6
s 3 + ( )
2
+
(
(
0 = lim
L'Hopital's rule:
t
0
2e
2t
2
2e
2t
+
6t
2e
2t
+
|
\
|
.
0 = lim
Check!
(c) f t ( ) u t ( ) e
2 t
+ 2e
t
= F s ( )
1
s
1
s 2 +
+
2
s 1 +
=
Initial value:
0 t
u t ( ) e
2 t
+ 2e
t
( )
1 1 + 2 ( ) 0 + = lim
s
s
1
s
1
s 2 +
+
2
s 1 +
\
|
.

= lim
L'Hopital's rule:
s
1
1
1
+
2
1
\
|
.
0 = lim
Final value:
t
u t ( ) e
2 t
+ 2e
t
( )
1 0 + 0 + = 1 = lim
0 s
s
1
s
1
s 2 +
+
2
s 1 +
\
|
.
1 0 + 0 + = 1 = lim

Problem 2-3. Initial and final value check of solutions to Problem 2-2
(a) f t ( ) u t ( ) 2 t + 3t
2
+ = F s ( )
1
s
2
s
2
+
6
s
3
+ =
Initial value:
0 t
u t ( ) 2t + 3t
2
+
( )
1 = lim
s
s
1
s
2
s
2
+
6
s
3
+
|
\
|
.
s
1
2
s
+
6
s
2
+
|
\
|
.
1 = lim
= lim
Final value:
t
u t ( ) 2t + 3t
2
+
( )
= lim
0 s
1
2
s
+
6
s
2
+
|
\
|
.
= lim
Check!
(b) f t ( ) e
2 t
u t ( ) 2t + 3t
2
+
( )
= F s ( )
1
s 2 +
2
s 2 + ( )
2
+
6
s 2 + ( )
3
+ =
Initial value:
0 t
e
2 t
u t ( ) 2t + 3t
2
+
( )
lim
s
s
1
s 2 +
2
s 2 + ( )
2
+
6
s 2 + ( )
3
+
(
(
= lim
1 1 0 + 0 + ( ) = 1 =
is unlawful.
Check!
0 s
s
1
s
1
s 1 + ( )
2
1 +
(
(
1 0 + = 1 = lim
t
1 e
2 t
sin t ( )
1 = lim
Final value:
s
s
1
s
1
s 1 + ( )
2
1 +
(
(
1 0 = 1 = lim
0 t
1 e
2 t
sin t
( )
1 = lim
Initial value:
The test of the delayed fnction is not useful. Better to test the term in brackets, g(t):
F s ( ) e
2 s 1
s
1
s 1 + ( )
2
1 +
(
(
= f t ( ) u t 2 ( ) 1 e
2 t 2 ( )
sin t 2 ( )
= (e)
Check!
t
1 0
1
1 e
t
+
|
\
|
.
1 = lim
L'Hopital's rule:
t
u t ( ) e
t
t e
t
+
( )
1 0 0 + = lim
0 s
1
s
s 1 +
s
s 1 + ( )
2
+
(
(
1 0 0 + = 1 = lim
Final value: s
1
1
1
1
2 s 1 + ( )
+
(
(
1 1 0 + = 0 = lim
L'Hopital's rule:
s
s
1
s
1
s 1 +
1
s 1 + ( )
2
+
(
(
= lim
0 t
u t ( ) e
t
t e
t
+
( )
1 1 0 1 + = 0 = lim
Initial value:
F s ( )
1
s
1
s 1 +
1
s 1 + ( )
2
+ = f t ( ) u t ( ) e
t
t e
t
+ = (d)
Problem 2-4. Laplace transform of a pulse by real translation theorem
f t ( ) H u t ( ) H u t T ( ) =
F s ( ) H
1
s
H e
sT
1
s
= H
1 e
sT
s
= F s ( )
H
s
1 e
sT
( )
=
is unlawful.
0 2 4
0
2
f
d
t ( )
t
0 2 4
0
2
f t ( )
t
f t ( ) e
t
0
e
t
:=
f
d
t ( ) u t t
0
( )
e
t t
0
( )
:=
u t ( ) 0 t 0 < if
1 t 0 if
:= 1 := t
0
1 := Sketch the functions:
F s ( )
e
t
0
s
s 1 +
=
The result to part (b) agrees with the real translation theorem.
e
t
0
s
1
s
1
+
e
s
1
+
|
\
|
.

0
=
e
t
0
s
s
1
+
=
e
t
0
s
s 1 +
=
F s ( )
t
0
u
( )
e

e
s t
0
+
( )
(
(
(
d = e
t
0
s
0
e
s
1
+
|
\
|
.

(
(
(
d =
t t
0
= Let
F s ( )
0
t u t t
0
( )
e
t t
0
( )
e
st
(
(
(
d = f t ( ) u t t
0
( )
e
t t
0
( )
=
(b) Function is delayed and zero from t = 0 to t = t
0
:
F s ( )
e
t
0
s 1 +
= F s ( ) e
t
0
1
s
1
+
=
e
t
0
s 1 +
= f t ( ) e
t
0
e
t
=
(from Table 2-1.1)
(a) Function is non-zero for all values of t > 0:
f t ( ) e
t t
0
( )
=
Problem 2-5. Delayed versus non-delayed function
Y t ( ) 2.5 e
t
2.5u t ( ) + = (Table 2-1.1)
(b)
9
d
2
y t ( )
dt
2
18
d y t ( )
dt
+ 4 y t ( ) + 8 x t ( ) 4 =
Initial steady state: 4 y 0 ( ) 8 x 0 ( ) 4 =
Subtract:
9
d
2
Y t ( )
dt
2
18
d Y t ( )
dt
+ 4 Y t ( ) + 8 X t ( ) =
Y t ( ) y t ( ) y 0 ( ) = Y 0 ( ) 0 =
X t ( ) x t ( ) x 0 ( ) =
Laplace transform:
9s
2
Y s ( ) 18s Y s ( ) + 4 Y s ( ) + 8 X s ( ) = 8
1
s
=
Solve for Y(s): Y s ( )
8
9s
2
18s + 4 +
1
s
=
r
1
18 18
2
4 9 4 +
2 9
:= r
1
0.255 =
r
2
18 18
2
4 9 4
2 9
:= r
2
1.745 =
Expand in partial fractions:
Y s ( )
8
9 s 0.255 + ( ) s 1.745 + ( )s
=
A
1
s 0.255 +
A
2
s 1.745 +
+
A
3
s
+ =
A
1
0.255 s
8
9 s 1.745 + ( )s
8
9 0.255 1.745 + ( ) 0.255 ( )
= 2.342 = lim
=
Problem 2-6. Solution of differential equations by Laplace transforms
Input function: X t ( ) u t ( ) = X s ( )
1
s
= (Table 2-1.1)
(a)
d y t ( )
dt
2 y t ( ) + 5 x t ( ) 3 + =
Initial steady state: 2 y 0 ( ) 5 x 0 ( ) = 3 =
Subtract:
d Y t ( )
dt
2 Y t ( ) + 5 X t ( ) = Y t ( ) y t ( ) y 0 ( ) = X t ( ) x t ( ) x 0 ( ) =
Laplace transform: sY s ( ) Y 0 ( ) 2 Y s ( ) + 5 X s ( ) = 5
1
s
= Y 0 ( ) y 0 ( ) y 0 ( ) = 0 =
Solve for Y(s):
Y s ( )
5
s 2 +
1
s
=
A
1
s 2 +
A
2
s
+ =
Partial fractions:
A
1
2 s
5
s
2.5 = lim
= A
2
0 s
5
s 2 +
2.5 = lim
=
Y s ( )
5
s 1 +
5
s
+ = Invert:
Y 0 ( ) 0 = 9
d
2
Y t ( )
dt
2
12
d Y t ( )
dt
+ 4 Y t ( ) + 8 X t ( ) =
Subtract initial steady state:
9
d
2
y t ( )
dt
2
12
d y t ( )
dt
+ 4 y t ( ) + 8 x t ( ) 4 = (d)
Y t ( ) 1 1.134i + ( )e
0.5 0.441i + ( )t
1 1.134i ( )e
0.5 0.441i ( )t
+ 2 u t ( ) + =
Invert using
Table 2-1.1:
Y s ( )
1 1.134i +
s 0.5 + 0.441i
1 1.134i
s 0.5 + 0.441i +
+
2
s
+ =
A
3
0 s
8
9s
2
9s + 4 +
2 = lim
= A
2
1 1.134i =
8
9 2 0.441i ( ) 0.5 0.441i + ( )
1 1.134i + = A
1
0.5 0.441i + s
8
9 s 0.5 + 0.441i + ( ) s
lim
=
A
1
s 0.5 + 0.441i
A
2
s 0.5 + 0.441i +
+
A
3
s
+ =
Y s ( )
8
9 s 0.5 + 0.441i ( ) s 0.5 + 0.441 + ( )s
=
Solve for Y(s), expand:
A
2
1.745 s
8
9 s 0.255 + ( )s
8
9 1.745 0.255 + ( ) 1.745 ( )
= 0.342 = lim
=
A
3
0 s
8
9 s 0.255 + ( ) s 1.745 + ( )
8
9 0.255 ( ) 1.745 ( )
= 2.0 = lim
=
Y s ( )
2.342
s 0.255 +
0.342
s 1.745 +
+
2
s
+ =
Invert with Table 2-1.1:
Y t ( ) 2.342 e
0.255 t
0.342e
1.745 t
+ 2 u t ( ) + =
(c)
9
d
2
y t ( )
dt
2
9
d y t ( )
dt
+ 4 y t ( ) + 8 x t ( ) 4 =
9
d
2
Y t ( )
dt
2
9
d Y t ( )
dt
+ 4 Y t ( ) + 8 X t ( ) = Y 0 ( ) 0 =
Laplace transform:
9s
2
9s + 4 +
( )
Y s ( ) 8 X s ( ) = 8
1
s
=
r
1
9 9
2
4 9 4 +
2 9
:= r
2
9 9
2
4 9 4
2 9
:= r
1
0.5 0.441i + =
Find roots:
r
2
0.5 0.441i =
A
2
0.027 0.022i =
3
2 2 2.598i ( ) 1 2.598i + ( ) 1.5 2.598i + ( )
0.027 0.022i + =
A
1
1.5 2.598i + s
3
2 s 1.5 + 2.598i + ( ) s 0.5 + ( )s
0.027 0.022i + = lim
=
A
1
s 1.5 + 2.598i
A
2
s 1.5 + 2.598i +
+
A
3
s 0.5 +
+
A
4
s
+ =
Y s ( )
3
2 s 1.5 + 2.598i ( ) s 1.5 + 2.598i + ( ) s 0.5 + ( )s
=
Solve for Y(s) and expand:
polyroots
9
21
7
2
|
\
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
.
1.5 2.598i
1.5 2.598i +
0.5
|
\
|
.
=
Find roots:
2s
3
7s
2
+ 21s + 9 +
( )
Y s ( ) 3 X s ( ) = 3
1
s
=
Laplace transform:
Y 0 ( ) 0 =
2
d
3
Y t ( )
dt
3
7
d
2
Y t ( )
dt
2
+ 21
d Y t ( )
dt
+ 9 Y t ( ) + 3 X t ( ) =
2
d
3
y t ( )
dt
3
7
d
2
y t ( )
dt
2
+ 21
d y t ( )
dt
+ 9 y t ( ) + 3 x t ( ) = (e)
Y t ( )
4
3
t 2
|
\
|
.
e
0.667 t
2 u t ( ) + =
Invert using Table 2-1.1:
A
3
0 s
8
9 s 0.667 + ( )
2
2 = lim
=
A
2
0.667 s
d
ds
8
9s
|
\
|
.
0.667 s
8
9s
2
2 = lim
= lim
= A
1
0.667 s
8
9s
4
3
= lim
=
Y s ( )
8
9 s 0.667 + ( )
2
s
=
A
1
s 0.667 + ( )
2
A
2
s 0.667 +
+
A
3
s
+ =
Solve for Y(s) and expand:
r
2
0.667 =
r
1
0.667 = r
2
12 12
2
4 9 4
2 9
:= r
1
12 12
2
4 9 4 +
2 9
:=
Find roots:
9s
2
12s + 4 +
( )
Y s ( ) 8 X s ( ) = 8
1
s
=
Laplace transform:
A
3
0.5 s
3
2 s 1.5 + 2.598i ( ) s 1.5 + 2.598i + ( )s
0.387 = lim
=
3
2 1 2.598i ( ) 1 2.598i + ( ) 0.5 ( )
0.387 = A
4
0 s
3
2s
3
7s
2
+ 21s + 9 +
1
3
= lim
=
Y s ( )
0.027 0.022i +
s 1.5 + 2.598i
0.027 0.022i
s 1.5 + 2.598i +
+
0.387
s 0.5 +
+
1
3
1
s
+ =
Y t ( ) 0.027 0.022i + ( )e
1.5 2.598i + ( )t
0.027 0.022i ( )e
1.5 2.598i ( )t
+ 0.387e
0.5 t
1
3
u t ( ) + =
is unlawful.
is unlawful.
Y t ( ) u t 1 ( )
8
3
t 1 ( ) 8
(
(
e
0.667 t 1 ( )
8 e
0.333 t 1 ( )
+
(
(
=
Apply the real translation theorem in reverse to this solution:
Y s ( )
8
3
1
s 0.667 + ( )
2
8
s 0.667 +
8
s 0.333 +
+
(
(
e
s
=
The partial fraction expansion of the undelayed signal is the same:
(Real translation
theorem)
X s ( )
e
s
s
1
3
+
= X t ( ) u t 1 ( ) e
t 1 ( )
3
= (b) Forcing function:
Y t ( )
8
3
t 8
|
\
|
.
e
0.667 t
8e
0.333 t
+ = Invert using Table 2-1.1:
Y s ( )
8
3
1
s 0.667 + ( )
2
8
s 0.667 +
+
8
s 0.333 +
+ =
A
2
0.667 s
d
ds
8
9 s 0.333 + ( )
(
(
0.667 s
8
9 s 0.333 + ( )
2
8 = lim
= lim
=
A
3
0.333 s
8
9 s 0.667 + ( )
2
8 = lim
= A
1
0.667 s
8
9 s 0.333 + ( )
8
3
= lim
=
8
9 s 0.667 + ( )
2
s 0.333 + ( )
=
A
1
s 0.667 + ( )
2
A
2
s 0.667 +
+
A
3
s 0.333 +
+ =
Y s ( )
8
9s
2
12s + 4 +
( )
s
1
3
+
|
\
|
.
=
X s ( )
1
s
1
3
+
= From Table 2-1.1: X t ( ) e
t
3
= (a) Forcing function:
Y 0 ( ) 0 = 9
d
2
Y t ( )
dt
2
12
d Y t ( )
dt
+ 4 Y t ( ) + 8 X t ( ) =
Problem 2-7. Solve Problem 2-6(d) with different forcing functions
(Final value theorem)
(b)
9
d
2
y t ( )
dt
2
18
d y t ( )
dt
+ 4 y t ( ) + 8 x t ( ) 4 =
Subtract initial steady state: 9
d
2
Y t ( )
dt
2
18
d Y t ( )
dt
+ 4 Y t ( ) + 8 X t ( ) = Y 0 ( ) 0 =
Laplace transform and solve for Y(s): Y s ( )
8
9s
2
18s + 4 +
X s ( ) =
Find roots: r
1
18 18
2
4 9 4 +
2 9 min
:= r
2
18 18
2
4 9 4
2 9 min
:= r
1
0.255 min
1
=
r
2
1.745 min
1
=
Invert using Table 2-1.1: Y t ( ) A
1
e
0.255 t
A
2
e
1.745 t
+ =
+ terms of X(s)
The response is stable and monotonic. The domnant root is: r
1
0.255 min
1
=
Time for the response to decay to 0.67% of its initial value:
5
r
1
19.6 min =
Final steady-state value for unit step input:
0 s
s
8
9s
2
18s + 4 +
1
s
lim
2
Problem 2-8. Response characteristics of the equations of Problem 2-6
(a)
d y t ( )
dt
2 y t ( ) + 5 x t ( ) 3 + =
Initial steady state: 2 y 0 ( ) 5 x 0 ( ) 3 + =
Subtract:
d Y t ( )
dt
2 Y t ( ) + 5 X t ( ) = Y t ( ) y t ( ) y 0 ( ) = X t ( ) x t ( ) x 0 ( ) =
Laplace transform: s Y s ( ) 2 Y s ( ) + 5 X s ( ) = Y 0 ( ) y 0 ( ) y 0 ( ) = 0 =
5
s 2 +
X s ( ) =
A
1
s 2 +
= + terms of X(s)
Invert using Table 2-1.1: Y t ( ) A
1
e
2 t
= + terms of X(t)
The response is stable and monotonic.The dominant and only root is r 2 min
1
:=
Time for response to decay to within 0.67% of its initial value:
5
r
2.5min =
Final steady-state value for unit step input:
0 s
s
5
s 2 +
1
s
lim
5
2
2.5 =
Time for oscillations to die:
5
0.5 min
1
10 min =
Final steady state value for a unit step imput:
0 s
s
8
9s
2
9s + 4 +
1
s
lim
2
(d) 9
d
2
y t ( )
dt
2
12
d y t ( )
dt
+ 4 y t ( ) + 8 x t ( ) 4 =
9
d
2
Y t ( )
dt
2
12
d Y t ( )
dt
+ 4 Y t ( ) + 8 X t ( ) =
Y 0 ( ) 0 =
Laplace transform and solve for Y(s):
Y s ( )
8
9s
2
12s + 4 +
X s ( ) =
Find roots:
r
1
12 12
2
4 9 4 +
2 9 min
:= r
2
12 12
2
4 9 4
2 9 min
:= r
1
0.667 min
1
=
r
2
0.667 min
1
=
Y t ( ) A
1
t A
2
+
( )
e
0.667 t
=
+ terms of X(t)
(c) 9
d
2
y t ( )
dt
2
9
d y t ( )
dt
+ 4 y t ( ) + 8 x t ( ) 4 =
9
d
2
Y t ( )
dt
2
9
d Y t ( )
dt
+ 4 Y t ( ) + 8 X t ( ) = Y 0 ( ) 0 =
Laplace transform and solve for Y(s):
Y s ( )
8
9s
2
9s + 4 +
X s ( ) =
Find the roots:
r
1
9 9
2
4 9 4 +
2 9 min
:= r
2
9 9
2
4 9 4
2 9 min
:= r
1
0.5 0.441i + min
1
=
r
2
0.5 0.441i min
1
=
Y t ( ) D e
0.5 t
sin 0.441t +
( )
=
+ terms of X(t)
The response is stable and oscillatory. The dominant roots are r1 and r2.
Period of the oscillations:
T
2
0.441min
1
:= T 14.25 min =
Decay ratio:
e
0.5 min
1
T
0.00081 =
is unlawful.
0 s
s
3
2s
3
7s
2
+ 21s + 9 +
1
s
lim
1
3
Final steady state value for a unit step input:
5
r
2
10 min = Time for response to die out: e
1.5 min
1
T
0.027 =
Decay ratio:
T 2.42 min = T
2
2.598min
1
:= The period of the oscillations is:
r
2
0.5 min
1
= The response is stable and oscillatory. The dominant root is
r
1.5 2.598i
1.5 2.598i +
0.5
|
\
|
.
min
1
= r polyroots
9
21
7
2
|
\
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
.
min
1
:=
Find roots:
Y s ( )
3
2s
3
7s
2
+ 21s + 9 +
X s ( ) = Laplace transform and solve for Y(s):
2
d
3
Y t ( )
dt
3
7
d
2
Y t ( )
dt
2
+ 21
d Y t ( )
dt
+ 9 Y t ( ) + 3 X t ( ) = Subtract initial steady state:
2
d
3
y t ( )
dt
3
7
d
2
y t ( )
dt
2
+ 21
d y t ( )
dt
+ 9 y t ( ) + 3 x t ( ) = (e)
0 s
s
8
9s
2
12s + 4 +
1
s
lim
2 Final steady state value for a unit step input:

5
r
1
7.5min = Time required for the response to decay within 0.67% of its initial value:
r
1
0.667 min
1
= The response is stable and monotonic. The dominant root is
Value of k: k
M g
y
0
:= k 1.816
N
m
=
Laplace transform:
M s
2
Y s ( ) k Y s ( ) + F s ( ) =
1
M s
2
k +
F s ( ) =
A
1
s i
k
M

A
2
s i
k
M
+
+ =
+ terms of F(s)
0 :=
D 1 :=
Invert using Table 2-3.1: Y t ( ) D sin
k
M
t s +
|
\
|
.
:= + terms of f(t)
The mobile will oscillate forever with a period of T 2
M
k
:= T 1.043 s =
Problem 2-9. Second-Order Response: Bird Mobile
-Mg
f(t)
y(t)
-ky(t)
y = 0
Problem data: M 50gm := y
0
27 cm :=
Solution:
Force balance:
M
d v t ( )
dt
M g k y t ( ) f t ( ) + =
Velocity:
d y t ( )
dt
v t ( ) =
Initial steady state: 0 M g k y
0
=
Subtract and substitute:
M
d
2
Y t ( )
dt
2
k Y t ( ) f t ( ) + =
Y 0 ( ) 0 =
0 2 4
1
0
1
Y t ( )
t
To more accurately reflect the motion of the bird mobile, we must add the resistance of the air. If we
assume it to be a force proportional to the velocity:
M
d
2
Y t ( )
dt
2
k Y t ( ) b
d Y t ( )
dt
f t ( ) + =
With this added term the roots will have a negative real part, causing the oscillations to decay, as
they do in practice:
Y s ( )
1
M s
2
b s + k +
F s ( ) = r
1
b b
2
4M k +
2M
=
b
2M
i
k
M
b
2
4M
2
+ =
Invert:
b
2
4M k <
Y t ( ) D e
b
2M
t
sin
k
M
b
2
4M
2
t +
|
\
|
.
= + terms of f(t)
is unlawful.
H 1 := T 1 := 1 := KH 1 := Invert using Table 2-1.1, and the real translation theorem:
Y s ( ) K H
1
s
1
s
1
\
|
.
1 e
sT
( )
=
A
2
0 s
K H
s 1 +
K H = lim
= A
1
1
s
K H
s
K H = lim
=
Y s ( )
K
s 1 +
H
1 e
sT
s
=
A
1
s
1
+
A
2
s
+
|
\
|
.
1 e
sT
( )
= Substitute:
X s ( ) H
1 e
sT
s
=
From Example 2-1.1b:
(b) Pulse of Fig. 2-1.1b
0 2 4
0
0.5
1
Y t ( )
t
Y t ( )
K
e
t
:=
Y s ( )
K
s 1 +
=
X s ( ) 1 = From Table 2-1.1: X t ( ) t ( ) = (a) Unit impulse:
Y s ( )
K
s 1 +
X s ( ) = Laplace transform and solve for Y(s):
Y 0 ( ) 0 =
d Y t ( )
dt
Y t ( ) + K X t ( ) =
Problem 2-10. Responses of general first-order differential equation
Y t ( ) KH u t ( ) e
t
u t T ( ) 1 e
t T ( )
(
(
(
(
:=
X t ( ) H u t ( ) u t T ( ) ( ) :=
0 2 4
0
0.5
1
Y t ( )
X t ( )
t
is unlawful.
is unlawful.
The tank is an integrating process because its ouput, the level, is the time integral of its input, the
inlet flow.
0 5 10
0
5
10
h t ( )
t
f(t)
h(t)
A 1 :=
h t ( )
1
A
t := Invert using Table 2-1.1: H s ( )
1
A
1
s
2
= Substitute:
(Table 2-1.1) F s ( )
1
s
= f t ( ) u t ( ) = Response to a unit step in flow:
H s ( )
F s ( )
1
A s
= Transfer function of the tank:
H s ( )
1
A s
F s ( ) = Laplace transform and solve for H(s):
h 0 ( ) 0 = A
d h t ( )
dt
f t ( ) =
Problem 2-11. Response of an integrating process
r
2
1.745 min
1
=

e2
1
r
2
:=

e2
0.573 min =
5
e1
19.64 min =
Time for response to decay within 0.67% of its initial value:
(b) 9
d
2
y t ( )
dt
2
9
d y t ( )
dt
+ 4 y t ( ) + 8 x t ( ) 4 =
Subtract initial steady state
and divide by the Y(t) coefficient:
9
4
d
2
Y t ( )
dt
2
9
4
d Y t ( )
dt
+ Y t ( ) + 2 X t ( ) = Y 0 ( ) 0 =
Compare coefficients to standard form:
9
4
min := 1.5min =
9min
4 2
:= 0.75 =
K 2 :=
Underdamped.
Find roots: r
1
9 9
2
4 9 4 +
2 9 min
:= r
1
0.5 0.441i + min
1
=
Frequency of oscillations: 0.441
rad
min
:= Period of oscillations: T
2
:= T 14.25 min =
Problem 2-12. Second-order differeential equations of Problem 2-6.
Standard form of the second-order equation:
2 d
2
Y t ( )
dt
2
2
d Y t ( )
dt
+ Y t ( ) + K X t ( ) =
(b) 9
d
2
y t ( )
dt
2
18
d y t ( )
dt
+ 4 y t ( ) + 8 x t ( ) 4 =
Subtract the initial steady state:
9
d
2
Y t ( )
dt
2
18
d Y t ( )
dt
+ 4 Y t ( ) + 8 X t ( ) = Y 0 ( ) 0 =
Divide by Y(t) coefficient:
9
4
d
2
Y t ( )
dt
2
18
4
d Y t ( )
dt
+ Y t ( ) + 2 X t ( ) =
Match coeffients to standard form:
9
4
min := 1.5min =
18min
4 2
:= 1.5 =
Equivalent time constants:
K 2 := Overdamped.
Find roots: r
1
18 18
2
4 9 4 +
2 9 min
:=
r
1
0.255 min
1
=
e1
1
r
1
:=
e1
3.927 min =
r
2
18 18
2
4 9 4
2 9 min
:=
1 =
K 2 := Critically damped.
Equivalent time constants:
Find roots: r
1
12 12
2
4 9 4 +
2 9 min
:= r
1
0.667 min
1
=
e1
1
r
1
:=
e1
1.5min =
r
2
12 12
2
4 9 4
2 9 min
:=
r
2
0.667 min
1
=
e2
1
r
2
:=
e2
1.5min =
Time for response to decay to within 0.67% of its initial value: 5
e1
7.5min =
is unlawful.
Decay ratio: e
0.5 min
1
T
0.00081 = Percent overshoot:
e
0.5 min
1
T
2
2.8% =
Rise time:
T
4
3.56 min = Settling time:
5
0.5 min
1
10 min =
(c) 9
d
2
y t ( )
dt
2
12
d y t ( )
dt
+ 4 y t ( ) + 8 x t ( ) 4 =
Subtract initial steady state and
divide by the coefficient of Y(t):
9
4
d
2
Y t ( )
dt
2
3
d Y t ( )
dt
+ Y t ( ) + 2 X t ( ) =
Y 0 ( ) 0 =
Compare coefficients to standard form:
9
4
min := 1.5min =
3min
2
:=
Y s ( ) K x
1
1
s
1
+
|
\
|
.
2
1
s
1
+
|
\
|
.
1
s
+
(
(
(
(
=
A
2
1
s
d
ds
K x
2
s
|
\
|
.
1
s
K x
2
s
2
K x = lim
= lim
=
A
3
0 s
K x
s 1 +
( )
2
K x = lim
= A
1
1
s
K x
2
s
K x
= lim
=
Y s ( )
K
s 1 +
( )
2
x
s
=
A
1
s
1
+
|
\
|
.
2
A
2
s
1
+
+
A
3
s
+ =
Step response for the critically damped case:
Y t ( ) K x u t ( )

e1
e1

e2
e
t
e1

e2
e2

e1
e
t
e2
\
|
|
.
=
(2-5.10) Invert using Table 2-1.1:
Y s ( ) K x

e1
e1

e2
1
s
1
e1
+
e2
e2

e1
1
s
1
e2
+
1
s
+
|
\
|
|
.
=
A
3
0 s
K x
e1
s 1 +
( )

e2
s 1 +
( )
K x = lim
=
A
2
K x
e2
e2

e1
= A
1
1
e1
s
K x
e1

e2
s
1
e2
+
|
\
|
.
s
K x
e1
e1

e2
= lim
=
Y s ( )
K
e1
s 1 +
( )

e2
s 1 +
( )
x
s
=
A
1
s
1
e1
+
A
2
s
1
e2
+
+
A
3
s
+ =
X s ( )
x
s
= Step response, over-damped second-order differential equation:
Problem 2-13. Partial fraction expansion coefficients for Eqs. 2-5.10 to 2-5.13
Y s ( )
K
s 1 +
( )
2
r
s
2
=
A
1
s
1
+
|
\
|
.
2
A
2
s
1
+
+
A
3
s
2
+
A
4
s
+ =
Ramp response for critically damped case:
Y t ( ) K r

e1
2
e1

e2
e
t
e1

e2
2
e2

e1
e
t
e2
+ t +
e1

e2
+
( )
(
(
(
(
=
(2-5.12)
Y s ( ) K r

e1
2
e1

e2
1
s
1
e1
+
e2
2
e2

e1
1
s
1
e2
+
+
1
s
2
+

e1

e2
+
s
\
|
|
.
=
K r
e1

e2
( )
=
A
4
0 s
d
ds
K r
e1
s 1 +
( )

e2
s 1 +
( )
(
(
0 s
K r

e1

e2
s 1 +
( )

e2

e1
s 1 +
( )

e1
s 1 +
( )
2
e2
s 1 +
( )
2
lim
= lim
=
A
3
0 s
K r
e1
s 1 +
( )

e2
s 1 +
( )
K r = lim
=
A
2
K r
e2
2
e2

e1
= A
1
1
e1
s
K r
e1

e2
s
1
e2
+
|
\
|
.
s
2
K r
e1
2
e1

e2
= lim
=
Y s ( )
K
e1
s 1 +
( )

e2
s 1 +
( )
r
s
2
=
A
1
s
1
e1
+
A
2
s
1
e2
+
+
A
3
s
2
+
A
4
s
+ =
X s ( )
r
s
2
= Ramp response for the over-damped case:
Y t ( ) K x u t ( )
t
1 +
|
\
|
.
e
t
(
(
(
=
(2-5.11)
A
1
1
s
K r
2
s
2
K r = lim
= A
3
0 s
K r
s 1 +
( )
2
K r = lim
=
A
2
1
s
d
ds
K r
2
s
2
|
\
|
.
1
s
2
K r
2
s
3
2 K r = lim
= lim
=
A
4
0 s
d
ds
K r
s 1 +
( )
2
(
(
0 s
2
K r
s 1 +
( )
3
2 K r = lim
= lim
=
Y s ( ) K r
1
s
1
+
|
\
|
.
2
2
s
1
+
+
1
s
2
+
2
s
(
(
(
(
=
Y t ( ) K r t 2 +
( )
e
t
t + 2
(
(
=
(2-5.13)
is unlawful.
X s ( )
x
s
=
Problem 2-14. Derive step reponse of n lags in series
Y s ( )
K
1
n
k
k
s 1 +
( )
=
x
s
=
A
0
s
1
n
k
A
k
s
1
k
+
=
+ =
A
0
0 s
K x
1
n
k
k
s 1 +
( )
=
K x = lim
=
Y t ( ) K x u t ( )
1
n
k
A
k
e
t
=
+ =
A
k
1
k
s
K x
s
1 j k ( )
n
j
s
1
j
+
|
\
|
.
1
n
j
K x
1
k
1 j k ( )
n
j
1
k
1
j
+
|
\
|
.
1
n
j
= lim
=
K x
1
k
1
k
n 1

k
1 j k ( )
n
j
k

j
( )
=
K x
k
n 1
1 j k ( )
n
j
k

j
( )
=
=
Substitute:
Y t ( ) K x u t ( )
1
n
k
k
n 1
1 j k ( )
n
j
k

j
( )
=
e
t
(
(
(
(
(
(
= (2-5.23)
is unlawful.
r
1

1

2
+
( )

1

2
+
( )
2
4
1

2
1 k
2
( )
+
2
1

2
=
(b) The response is stable if both roots are negative if 0 < k2 < 1.
This term is positive as long as
1
,
2
, and k
2
are positive, so the response is overdamped.
1

2
( )
2
4
1

2
k
2
+ =
1
2
2
1

2

2
2
+ 4
1

2
k
2
+ =
1

2
+
( )
2
4
1

2
1 k
2
( )

1
2
2
1

2
+
2
2
+ 4
1

2
4
1

2
k
2
+ =
(a) The response is overdamped if the term in the radical is positive:
r
1

1

2
+
( )

1

2
+
( )
2
4
1

2
1 k
2
( )
+
2
1

2
1

2
s
2

1

2
+
( )
s + 1 + k
2
0 =
Find the roots of the denominator:

1

2
+
2 1 k
2
( )
=

1

2
+
2
1

2
1 k
2
( )

= Damping ratio:

1

2
1 k
2
= Time constant: K
k
1
1 k
2
= Gain: Comparing coefficients:

Y s ( )
k
1
1 k
2
1

2
1 k
2
\
|
.
s
2

1

2
+
1 k
2
s + 1 +
X s ( ) =
Rerrange interacting equation:
Y s ( )
K
2
s
2
2 s + 1 +
X s ( ) =
Standard form of the second-order differential equaton, Eq. 2-5.4:
Y s ( )
k
1
1
s 1 +
( )

2
s 1 +
( )
k
2
X s ( ) =
k
1
1

2
s
2

1

2
+
( )
s + 1 + k
2
X s ( ) =
Problem 2-15. Transfer function of second-order interacting systems.
If
1
,
2
, and k
2
are positive, and if k
2
< 1, then the positive term in the numerator is always less in
magnitude than the negative term, and the root is negative. The other root has to be negative
because both terms in the numerator are negative. So, the response is stable.
(c) Effective time constants
As the response is overdamped, we can derive the formulas for the two effective time constants.
These are the negative reciprocals of the two real roots:
e1
2
1

2
1

2
+
1

2
( )
2
4
1

2
k
2
+
=
e1
2
1

2
1

2
+
1

2
( )
2
4
1

2
k
2
+ +
=
The first of these is the dominant time constant.
is unlawful.
is unlawful.
The response canot be unstable for positive K
c
. The time constant and damping ratio are always
real and positive for positive gain.
Cannot be undamped for finite K
c
.
0 = (iii) Undamped:
cannot be negative for positive K
c
1
3
K
c
< < 0 < 1 < (ii) Underdamped:
K
c
1
3
<
4
3
1 K
c
+ >
2
3 1 K
c
+
( )
1 > 1 > (i) Overdamped:
Ranges of the controller gain for which the response is:
4
2 1 K
c
+
( )
=
2
3 1 K
c
+
( )
= Damping ratio:
3
1 K
c
+
= Time constant: K
K
c
1 K
c
+
= Gain:
C s ( )
K
c
1 K
c
+
3
1 K
c
+
s
2 4
1 K
c
+
s + 1 +
R s ( ) =
Rearrange feedback loop transfer function and compare coefficients:
C s ( )
K
2
2 s + 1 +
R s ( ) = Standard second-order transfer function, Eq. 2-5.4:
This is a second-order process with a proportional controller.
C s ( )
K
c
3s 1 + ( ) s 1 + ( ) K
c
+
R s ( ) =
K
c
3s
2
4s + 1 + K
c
+
=
Problem 2-16. Transfer function of a second-order feedback control loop
Y X t ( ) ( )

1 1
( )
x
b
+
2
X t ( ) =
Y X t ( ) ( ) y x t ( ) ( ) y x
b
( )
= X t ( ) x t ( ) x
b
= Let
y x t ( ) y x
b
( )
1 1
( )
x
b
+
x
b
1
( )

1 1
( )
x
b
+
2
x t ( ) x
b
( )
+ =
y x t ( ) ( )
x t ( )
1 1
( )
x t ( ) +
=
(c) Eqilibrium mole fraction by relative volatility, Eq. 2-6.3:
P
o
t ( )
( )
B p
o
T
b
( )
T
b
C +
( )
2
t ( ) =
P
o
t ( )
( )
p
o
T t ( ) ( ) p
o
T
b
( )
= t ( ) T t ( ) T
b
= Let
p
o
T t ( ) ( ) p
o
T
b
( )
B
T
b
C +
( )
2
e
A
B
T
b
C +
T t ( ) T
b
( )
+ =
p
o
T t ( ) ( ) e
A
B
T t ( ) C +
=
(b) Antoine equation for vapor pressure, Eq. 2-6.2:
H
d
t ( )
( )
a
1
2a
2
T
b
+ 3a
3
T
b
2
+ 4a
4
T
b
3
+
|
\
|
.
t ( ) =
H
d
t ( )
( )
H T t ( ) ( ) H T
b
( )
= t ( ) T t ( ) T
b
= Let
H T t ( ) ( ) H T
b
( )
a
1
2a
2
T
b
+ 3a
3
T
b
2
+ 4a
4
T
b
3
+
|
\
|
.
T t ( ) T
b
( )
+ =
H T t ( ) ( ) H
0
a
1
T t ( ) + a
2
T
2
t ( ) + a
3
T
3
t ( ) + a
4
T
4
t ( ) + =
(use subscript b for base value) (a) Enthalpy as a function of temperature, Eq. 2-6.1:
Problem 2-17. Linearization of common process model functions.
(d) Flow as a function of pressure drop, Eq. 2-6.4:
f p t ( )
( )
k p t ( ) =
f p t ( )
( )
f p
b
( )
k
2 p
b
p t ( ) p
b
( )
+ =
Let
P t ( ) p t ( ) p
b
= F P t ( )
( )
f p t ( )
( )
f p
b
( )
=
F P t ( )
( )
k
2 p
b
P t ( ) =
(e) Radiation heat transfer rate as a function of temperature, Eq. 2-6.5:
q T t ( ) ( ) A T
4
t ( ) =
q T t ( ) ( ) q T
b
( )
4 A T
b
3
T t ( ) T
b
( )
+ =
Let
t ( ) T t ( ) T
b
= Q t ( )
( )
q T t ( ) ( ) q T
b
( )
=
Q t ( )
( )
4 A T
b
3
t ( ) =
is unlawful.
T
max
610 K = T
min
590 K =
Temperature range for which the heat transfer rate is within 5% of the linear
approximation:
error A T
4
A T
b
4
4 A T
b
3
T T
b
( )
+
= 0.05 A T
4

( )
=
Simplify and rearrange: T
4
4 T
b
3
T 3T
b
4
+ 0.05T
4
=
As the error is always positive, the absolute value brackets can be dropped. Rearrange into a
polynomial and find its roots:
0.95
T
T
b
|
\
|
.
4
4
T
T
b
3 + 0 =
polyroots
3
4
0
0
0.95
|
\
|
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
|
.
1.014 1.438i
1.014 1.438i +
0.921
1.108
|
\
|
|
|
.
=
Ignore the complex roots. The other two roots are the lower and upper limits of the range:
0.921
T
T
b
1.108
For T
b
400K := T
min
0.921 T
b
:= T
max
1.108T
b
:= T
min
368 K = T
max
443 K =
Problem 2-18. Linearization of radiation heat transfer--range of accuracy.
q T ( ) 4 A T
4
= Use subscript "b" for base value for linearization.
From the solution to Problem 2-17(e), the slope is:
d q T ( )
dT
4 A T
3
=
Temperature range for which the slope is within 5% of the slope at the base value
K 1.8R :=
error 4 A T
3
4 A T
b
3
= 0.05 4 A T
b
3
|
\
|
.
=
T
max
3
1.05 T
b
= 1.0164T
b
= T
T
b
|
\
|
.
3
1 0.05 =
Simplify and rearrange:
T
min
3
0.95 T
b
= 0.983T
b
=
For T
b
400K := T
max
3
1.05 T
b
:= T
min
3
0.95 T
b
:= T
max
407 K = T
min
393 K =
T
b
600K := T
max
3
1.05 T
b
:= T
min
3
0.95 T
b
:=
T
b
600K := T
min
0.921 T
b
:= T
max
1.108T
b
:= T
min
553 K = T
max
665 K =
So the range for which the linear approximation is within 5% of the heat rate is much wider than the
range for which the value of the slope is within 5% of the actual slope. We must keep in mind that
the parameters of the dynamic model are a function of the slope, not the heat rate.
is unlawful.
0 x 0.362
(b) x
min
1.1 0.9 , ( ) 0.637 = x
max
1.1 0.9 , ( ) 1.183 = (one) 0.637 x 1
(c) x
min
5 0.1 , ( ) 0.092 = x
max
5 0.1 , ( ) 0.109 = 0.092 x 0.109
(d) x
min
5 0.9 , ( ) 0.872 = x
max
5 0.9 , ( ) 0.93 = 0.872 x 0.93
The range of accuracy is narrower the higher and the higher x
b
.
For the vapor composition: y x ( )
x
1 1
( )
x +
=
error
x
1 1 ( )x +
x
b
1 1
( )
x
b
+

1 1
( )
x
b
+
2
x x
b
( )
+
1 = 0.05 =
x
1 1
( )
x +
1 1
( )
x
b
+
2
x
b
1 1
( )
x
b
+
x + x
b

1 0.05 =
The error is always negative, so we can change signs and drop the absolute value bars:
Problem 2-19. Equilibrium vapor composition--range of accuracy
y x ( )
x
1 1
( )
x +
= Use subscript "b" for base value for linearization.
From the solution to Problem 2-17(c):
d y x ( )
dx

1 1
( )
x +
(
2
=
For the slope:
error

1 1
( )
x +
(
2

1 1
( )
x
b
+
2
= 0.05

1 1
( )
x
b
+
2
=
Simplify and rearrange:
1 1
( )
x
b
+
1 1
( )
x +
(
(
2
1 0.05 =
Lower limit:
1 1
( )
x
b
+
1 1
( )
x
min
+
1.05 = x
min
x
b
,
( )
1 1
( )
x
b
+ 1.05
1.05 1
( )
:=
Upper limit:
1 1
( )
x
b
+
1 1
( )
x
max
+
0.95 =
x
max
x
b
,
( )
1 1
( )
x
b
+ 0.95
0.95 1
( )
:=
(a) x
min
1.1 0.1 , ( ) 0.143 = (zero) x
max
1.1 0.1 , ( ) 0.362 =
0.40 x 1
(c) 5 := x
b
0.1 :=
polyroots
0.95 1
( )
0.05 1
( )
2
x
b
0.05
x
b
2 1
( )
0.95 1
( )
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
0.605
1.653
|
\
|
.
=
x
min
0.605x
b
:= x
max
1.653x
b
:= x
min
0.061 = x
max
0.165 = 0.061 x 0.165
(d) 5 := x
b
0.9 :=
polyroots
0.95 1
( )
0.05 1
( )
2
x
b
0.05
x
b
2 1
( )
0.95 1
( )
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
0.577
1.732
|
\
|
.
=
x
min
0.577x
b
:= x
max
1.732x
b
:= x
min
0.519 = x
max
1.559 = 0.519 x 1
is unlawful.
1 1
( )
x
b
+
2
x 0.95 1 1
( )
x +
(
1
( )
x
b
2
x +
|
\
|
.
=
0.95 1
( )
x
2
0.95 1
( )
2
x
b
2
0.95 + 1 2 1
( )
x
b
1
( )
2
x
b
2

x + 0.95 1
( )
x
b
+
0.95 1
( )
x
x
b
|
\
|
.
2
0.05 1
( )
2
x
b
0.05
x
b
2 1
( )
(
(
x
x
b
+ 0.95 1
( )
+ 0 =
Find the roots, one is the lower limit and the other one the upper limit:
(a) 1.1 := x
b
0.1 :=
polyroots
0.95 1
( )
0.05 1
( )
2
x
b
0.05
x
b
2 1
( )
0.95 1
( )
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
0.138
7.231
|
\
|
.
=
x
min
0.138x
b
:= x
max
7.231x
b
:= x
min
0.014 = x
max
0.723 = 0.014 x 0.723
(b) 1.1 := x
b
0.9 :=
polyroots
0.95 1
( )
0.05 1
( )
2
x
b
0.05
x
b
2 1
( )
0.95 1
( )
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
0.444
2.25
|
\
|
.
=
x
min
0.444x
b
:= x
max
2.25x
b
:= x
min
0.4 = x
max
2.025 =
2 k c
Ab
c
Bb
2 hr
1
= k c
Ab
2
2 hr
1
=
R C
A
t ( ) C
B
t ( ) ,
( )
2hr
1
C
A
t ( ) 2hr
1
C
B
t ( ) + =
For c
A
3
kmole
m
3
:= 2 k c
A
c
Bb
2 k c
Ab
c
Bb
1 hr
1
=
(off by 50%)
k c
A
2
k c
Ab
2
2.5hr
1
= (off by 125%)
For c
B
2
kmole
m
3
:= 2 k c
Ab
c
B
2 k c
Ab
c
Bb
2 hr
1
=
(off by 100%)
k c
Ab
2
k c
Ab
2
0 hr
1
= (same as the base value)
These errors on the parameters of the linear approximation are significant, meaning that it is only
valid for very small deviations of the reactant concentrations from their base values.
is unlawful.
Problem 2-20. Linearization of chemical reaction rate. kmole 1000mole :=
r c
A
t ( ) c
B
t ( ) ,
( )
k c
A
t ( )
2
c
B
t ( ) =
Use subscript "b" for base value for linearization.
Problem parameters: k 0.5
m
6
kmole
2
hr
:= c
Ab
2
kmole
m
3
:= c
Bb
1
kmole
m
3
:=
Linearize: r c
A
t ( ) c
B
t ( ) ,
( )
r c
Ab
c
Bb
,
( )
2k c
Ab
c
Bb
c
A
t ( ) c
Ab
( )
+ k c
Ab
2
c
B
t ( ) c
Bb
( )
+ =
Let R C
A
t ( ) C
B
t ( ) ,
( )
r c
A
t ( ) c
B
t ( ) ,
( )
r c
Ab
c
Bb
,
( )
= C
Ab
t ( ) c
A
t ( ) c
Ab
=
C
B
t ( ) c
B
t ( ) c
Bb
=
R C
A
t ( ) C
B
t ( ) ,
( )
2k c
Ab
c
Bb
C
A
t ( ) k c
Ab
2
C
B
t ( ) + =
At the given base conditions:
degC K := mmHg
atm
760
:= mole% % :=
Numerical values for benzene at: p
b
760mmHg := T
b
95degC := x
b
50mole% :=
A 15.9008 := B 2788.51degC := C 220.80degC :=
Let po
b
p
o
T
b
( )
=
po
b
e
A
B
T
b
C +
mmHg := po
b
1177 mmHg =
x
b
B po
b
p
b
T
b
C +
( )
2
0.022
1
degC
=
po
b
p
b
1.549 =
po
b
x
b
p
b
2
0.00102
1
mmHg
=
Problem 2-21. Linearization of Raoult's Law for equilibrium vapor
composition.
Raoult's Law: y T t ( ) p t ( ) , x t ( ) , ( )
p
o
T t ( ) ( )
p t ( )
x t ( ) =
p
o
T t ( ) ( ) e
A
B
T t ( ) C +
=
Linearize: Use subscript "b" for base value for linearization.
y T t ( ) p t ( ) , x t ( ) , ( ) y T
b
p
b
, x
b
,
( )
x
b
p
b
T
p
o
T t ( ) ( )
T t ( ) T
b
( )
+
p
o
T
b
( )
p
b
x t ( ) x
b
( )
+ =
p
o
T
b
( )
x
b
p
b
2
p t ( ) p
b
( )
+
T
e
A
B
T t ( ) C +
\
|
.
B
T
b
C +
( )
2
e
A
B
T
b
C +
=
B p
o
T
b
( )
T
b
C +
( )
2
=
Let Y t ( ) P t ( ) , X t ( ) ,
( )
y T t ( ) p t ( ) , x t ( ) , ( ) y T
b
p
b
, x
b
,
( )
= t ( ) T t ( ) T
b
= P t ( ) p t ( ) p
b
=
X t ( ) x t ( ) x
b
=
Y t ( ) P t ( ) , X t ( ) ,
( )
x
b
B p
o
T
b
( )
p
b
T
b
C +
( )
2
t ( )
p
o
T
b
( )
p
b
X t ( ) +
p
o
T
b
( )
x
b
p
b
2
P t ( ) =
Y t ( ) P t ( ) , X t ( ) ,
( )
0.022
degC
t ( ) 1.549 X t ( ) +
0.00102
mmHg
P t ( ) =
po
b
x
b
p
b
77.441 % = y T
b
p
b
, x
b
,
( )
77.44mole% =
is unlawful.
From the initial steady state: 0 f
b
c
A.b
c
Ab
( )
k T
b
( )
V c
Ab
=
c
Ab
f
b
c
Aib
f
b
k
b
V +
:= c
Ab
9.231 10
5
kmole
m
3
=
Calculate parameters:
V
f
b
k
b
V +
:= K
1
c
Aib
c
Ab
f
b
V k
b
+
:= K
2
f
b
f
b
V k
b
+
:= 0.01 s =
K
1
0.046
s kmole
m
6
=
K
3
V k
b
E c
Ab
1.987
kcal
kmole K
T
b
2
f
b
V k
b
+
( )
:=
K
2
7.692 10
6
=
f
b
V k
b
+ 260.002
m
3
s
=
K
3
3.113 10
6
kmol
m
3
K
=
Linearized equation:
0.01 sec
d C
A
t ( )
dt
C
A
t ( ) + 0.046
kmole
m
3
s
m
3
F t ( ) 7.692 10
6
C
Ai
t ( ) + 3.113
kmole
m
3
K
t ( ) =
is unlawful.
Problem 2-22. Linearization of reactor of Examples 2-6.4 and 2-6.1.
From the results of Example 2-6.4:
d C
A
t ( )
dt
C
A
t ( ) + K
1
F t ( ) K
2
C
Ai
t ( ) + K
3
t ( ) + =
V
f
b
V k T
b
( )
+
=
K
1
c
Aib
c
Ab
f
b
V k T
b
( )
+
= K
2
f
b
f
b
V k T
b
( )
+
= K
3
V k T
b
( )
E c
Ab
R T
b
2
f
b
V k T
b
( )
+
( )
=
Problem parameters: V 2.6m
3
:= f
b
0.002
m
3
s
:= c
Aib
12
kmole
m
3
:=
Let k
b
k T
b
( )
=
T
b
573K := k
b
100s
1
:= E 22000
kcal
kmole
:=
p t ( ) t ( )
v
2
t ( )
2
p
o
+ = v t ( ) 2
p t ( ) p
o
( )
t ( )
=
Flow through the orifice caused by the bullet: w
o
t ( ) t ( ) A
o
v t ( ) = A
o
2 t ( ) p t ( ) p
o
( )
=
Ideal gas law: t ( )
M p t ( )
R
g
T 273K + ( )
=
Substitute into mass balance:
V M
R
g
T 273 K + ( )
d p t ( )
dt
w
i
t ( ) A
o
2 M
R
g
T 273K + ( )
p t ( ) p t ( ) p
o
( )
=
Solve for the derivative:
d p t ( )
dt
g w
i
t ( ) p t ( ) ,
( )
=
R
g
T 273K + ( )
V M
w
i
t ( ) A
o
2 M
R
g
T 273K + ( )
p t ( ) p t ( ) p
o
( )

(
(
=
Linearize:
d p t ( )
dt
g
w
i
b
w
i
t ( ) w
b
( )
g
p
b
p t ( ) p
b
( )
+ =
Let P t ( ) p t ( ) p
b
= W
i
t ( ) w
i
t ( ) w
b
=
a
1
g
w
i
b
= a
1
R
g
T 273K + ( )
V M
:= a
1
65.56
kPa
kg
=
Problem 2-23. Pressure in a compressed air tank when punctured.
V
p(t)
w
i
(t)
w
o
(t)
p
o
Assumptions:
Air obeys ideal gas law
Constant temperature
Design conditions: kPa 1000Pa :=
p
b
500 101.3 + ( )kPa := M 29
kg
kmole
:=
A
o
0.785cm
2
:= T 70degC :=
V 1.5m
3
:=
R
g
8.314
kPa m
3
kmole K
:= p
o
101.3kPa :=
Solution:
Mass balance on the tank: V
d t ( )
dt
w
i
t ( ) w
o
t ( ) =
Bernoulli's equation:
is unlawful.
K 1.8R :=
If the compressor shuts down it will take approximately 5(42.8) = 214 sec (3.5 min) for the
pressure transient to die out, according to the linear approximation. (See the results of the
simulation, Problem 13-3, to see how long it actually takes.)
P s ( )
W
i
s ( )
K
s 1 +
= Transfer function:
K 2.8 10
3
kPa sec
kg
= 42.9 sec =
K
a
1
a
2
:=
1
a
2
:= Then
d P t ( )
dt
P t ( ) + K W
i
t ( ) = Compare to standard form of first-order equation:
P 0 ( ) 0 =
1
a
2
d P t ( )
dt
P t ( ) +
a
1
a
2
W
i
t ( ) =
d P t ( )
dt
a
1
W
i
t ( ) a
2
P t ( ) + = Substitute:
a
2
0.023 sec
1
= a
2
A
o
2 V
2 R
g
T 273 K + ( )
M p
b
p
b
p
o
( )
kPa
1000Pa
2 p
b
p
o
( )
1000Pa
kPa
m
100cm
|
\
|
.
2
:=
a
2
g
p
b
=
A
o
V
2 R
g
T 273K + ( )
M
1
2
p
b
p
b
p
0
( )
1
2
2p
b
po
( )
=
t ( ) T t ( ) T
b
=
Substitute:
d t ( )
dt
a
1

s
t ( ) a
2
t ( ) + = 0 ( ) 0 = (base is initial steady state)
Standard form of the first-order differential equation:
d t ( )
dt
t ( ) + K
s
t ( ) =
Divide by -a
2
and rearrange: 1
a
2
d t ( )
dt
t ( ) +
a
1
a
2

s
t ( ) =
M c
v
4 A T
b
3
d t ( )
dt
t ( ) +
T
sb
T
b
|
\
|
.
3
s
t ( ) =
Compare coefficients:
M c
v
4 A T
b
3
= K
T
sb
T
b
|
\
|
.
3
=
Laplace transform:
s ( )
s
s ( )
K
s 1 +
=
The input variable is the temperature of the oven wall. See problem 13-4 for the simulation.
is unlawful.
Problem 2-24. Temperature of a turkey in an oven.
T(t)
T
s
(t)
M
Assumptions
Uniform turkey temperature
Negligible heat of cooking
Radiation heat transfer only
Energy balance on the turkey:
M c
v
d T t ( )
dt
A T
s
4
t ( ) T
4
t ( )
=
Use subscript "b" for linearization base values.
d T t ( )
dt
g T
s
t ( ) T t ( ) ,
( )
=
A
M c
v
T
s
4
t ( ) T
4
t ( )
=
Linearize:
d T t ( )
dt
a
1
T
s
t ( ) T
sb
( )
a
2
T t ( ) T
b
( )
+ =
where a
1
g
T
s
b
=
4 A
M c
v
T
sb
3
= a
2
g
T
b
=
4 A
M c
v
T
b
3
=
Let
s
t ( ) T
s
t ( ) T
sb
=
Q t ( ) q t ( ) q
b
= a
1
g
q
b
= a
2
g
T
b
=
a
1
1
C
:= a
2
4 T
b
3
C
:= a
1
5.556 10
3
R
BTU
= a
2
0.381 hr
1
=
Substitute:
d t ( )
dt
a
1
Q t ( ) a
2
t ( ) + = 0 ( ) 0 = (base is initial value)
Standard form of first-order differential equation:
d t ( )
dt
t ( ) + K Q t ( ) =
Divide by -a2 and rearrange:
1
a
2
d t ( )
dt
t ( ) +
a
1
a
2
Q t ( ) =
C
4 T
b
3
d t ( )
dt
t ( ) +
1
4 T
b
3
Q t ( ) =
Compare coefficients:
C
4 T
b
3
:= K
1
4 T
b
3
:= 2.62 hr = K 0.01458
R hr
BTU
=
Problem 2-25. Slab heated by an electric heater by radiation.
T(t)
T
s
q(t)
Assumptions:
Uniform temperature of the slab
Heat transfer by radiation only
Energy balance on the slab:
M c
v
d T t ( )
dt
q t ( ) A T
4
t ( ) T
s
4
=
Let C M c
v
= A =
Substitute C
d T t ( )
dt
q t ( ) T
4
t ( ) T
s
4
=
Problem parameters: Use subscript "b" to denote linearization base value.
C 180
BTU
R
:= 5 10
8
BTU
hr R
4
:= T
s
540R := T
b
700R :=
d T t ( )
dt
g q t ( ) T t ( ) , ( ) =
1
C
q t ( )

C
T
4
t ( ) T
s
4
=
Linearize:
d T t ( )
dt
a
1
q t ( ) q
b
( )
a
2
T t ( ) T
b
( )
+ =
Let t ( ) T t ( ) T
b
=
Transfer function:
s ( )
Q s ( )
K
s 1 +
=
is unlawful.

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F s ( )

Smith & Corripio, 3rd edition

2 Final steady state value for a unit step input:

= Gain: Comparing coefficients:

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