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Definition and concepts Application Power semiconductor switches Gate/base drivers Losses Heat sinks Snubbers Safe operating area (SOA)
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vi , ii
Source
vo , i o
Load
Processor
Control signal
Controller
Building Blocks:
measurement reference
Drive applications intimately contains moving or rotating components such as motors. Examples:
Electric trains, Electric vehicles, Airconditioning System, Pumps, Compressor, Conveyer Belt (Factory automation).
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Application examples
Static Application: DC Power Supply
AC voltage
DIODE RECTIFIER
FILTER
DC-DC CONVERTER
LOAD
AC LINE VOLTAGE (1 or 3 )
Building Cooling
System Controller
Indoor sensors
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Simple system Series transistor works as an adjustable resistor Low Efficiency (high losses) can drop up to 40% Suitable for low power Heavy and bulky (transformer & magnetic components)
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Transistor works as a switch (ON, OFF) High Efficiency ( > 90 %) High-Frequency transformer Multi-output voltage application Low cost, small size , light weight
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340 V
time
+ Vo _
Vo
Vdc
time
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Conversion Concept
How if customer wants variable DC voltage? More complex circuit using SCR is required.
vs
ig ia
G K
+ vo _ vo
A
+ vs _
2
ig
AC input
DC output
2. DC to DC: CHOPPER
DC input
DC output
3. DC to AC: INVERTER
DC input
AC output
4. AC to AC: CYCLOCONVERSION
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Current Issues
1.
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2. Environment issues Nuclear safety. Nuclear plants remain radioactive for thousands of years. Burning of fossil fuel Emits gases such as CO2, CO (oil burning), SO2, NOX (coal burning) etc. Creates global warming (green house effect), acid rain and urban pollution from smokes. Possible solutions by application of PE. Examples: Renewable energy resources. Centralization of power stations to remote non-urban area. (mitigation). Electric vehicles.
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PE Application - BIPV
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PE Application-Electric vehicles
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PE Home Appliances
Inverter microwave
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PE growth
PE rapid growth due to: Technology advancement in power (semiconductor) switches Advances in microelectronics (DSP, VLSI, microprocessor/microcontroller, ASIC) New ideas in control algorithms Demand for new PE applications with smaller size and lighter weight, new VSD motors PE is an interdisciplinary field: Digital/analogue electronics Power and energy Microelectronics Control system Computer, simulation and software Solid-state physics and devices Packaging Heat transfer
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Operates in two states: Fully on. i.e. switch closed. Conducting state Fully off , i.e. switch opened. Blocking state Power switch never operates in linear mode.
I Vswitch 0 = Vin
Can be categorised into three groups: Uncontrolled: Diode : Semi-controlled: Thyristor (SCR). Fully controlled: Power transistors: e.g. BJT, MOSFET, IGBT, GTO, IGCT
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SITH
THYRISTORS (SCR)
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Power Diode
A (Anode)
Id
+ Vd _
K (Cathode)
Diode: Symbol
v-i characteristics
When diode is forward biased, it conducts current with a small forward voltage (Vf) across it (0.2-3V) When reversed (or blocking state), a negligibly small leakage current (uA to mA) flows until the reverse breakdown occurs. Diode should not be operated at reverse voltage greater than Vr
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Reverse Recovery
IF trr= ( t2 - t0 )
dif/dt
t2 t0 VR IRM VRM
When a diode is switched quickly from forward to reverse bias, it continues to conduct due to the minority carriers which remains in the p-n junction. The minority carriers require finite time, i.e, trr (reverse recovery time) to recombine with opposite charge and neutralise. Effects of reverse recovery are increase in switching losses, increase in voltage rating, over-voltage (spikes) in inductive loads
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Softness factor, Sr
Snap-off
IF
t0 t1
Soft-recovery
VR t2
IF
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THYRISTOR
J1 J2 J3
SCR was invented 1956 Bell Telephone Lab, then it was commercialized by GEC 1957 It has a 4-layer p.n.p.n structure with 3 terminals ( anode, cathode, gate) Anode and cathode connected to main power circuit. Gate terminal connected to low level gate current Operation- VAK positive, J1 & J3 forward biased, but J2 reverse biased- no conduction (off-state) until VAK> VBO Applied gate voltage Vg to gate- lowered the level of J2 reversed biased, so thyristor will turn-on (conducting) . Current flows in forward direction.
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Thyristor (SCR)
A (Anode) Ia + Vak _
Reversed break over voltage
Ia
Forward break over voltage
Ig G (Gate)
Vr
Ih IL Ibo
Ig>0
Ig=0
K (Cathode)
Vbo
Vak
Thyristor: Symbol
v-i characteristics
If the forward break over voltage (Vbo) is exceeded, the SCR self-triggers into the conducting state. The presence of gate current will reduce Vbo. Normal conditions for thyristors to turn on:
the device is in forward blocking state (i.e Vak is positive) a positive gate current (Ig) is applied at the gate
Once conducting, the anode current is latched. Vak collapses to normal forward volt-drop, typically 1.5-3V. (temperature dependant) In reverse -biased mode, the SCR behaves like a diode. Voltage blocking is bi-directional.
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Thyristor Conduction
ig ia + vs _
vs
+ vo _
vo
ig
Thyristor cannot be turned off by applying negative gate current. It can only be turned off if Ia goes negative (reverse) This happens when negative portion of the of sine-wave occurs (natural/line commutation), Another method of turning off is known as forced commutation, ( i.e when supply is DC, e.g. Inverter ) The anode current is diverted to another circuitry. Auxiliary energy in capacitor used to force anode current to zero.
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Types of thyristors
Phase controlled rectifying line frequency voltage and current for ac and dc motor drives large voltage (up to 7 kV) and current (up to 4 kA) capability low on-state voltage drop (1.5 to 3V) Inverter grade used in inverter and chopper Quite fast. Can be turned-on using forcecommutation method. Light-activated Similar to phase controlled, but triggered by pulse of light guided by optical fibre. Normally very high power ratings (HVDC) TRIAC Dual polarity thyristors ( 2 SCRs integrated in inverse-parallel ) Frequently used in many low-power applications such as juice maker, blenders and vacuum cleaners
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IB
E (emitter)
VCE (sat)
VCE
v-i characteristics
BJT invented in 1948, by 1960 substantial power handling capability Current Control Device (base current, Ib control Ic). It has 3-layer p.n.p or n.p.n structure with 2 junctions. Ratings: Voltage: VCE<1000, Current: IC<400A. Switching frequency up to 5kHz. Low on-state voltage: VCE(sat) : 2-3V Low current gain (<10). Need high base current to obtain reasonable IC . (Increase current gain by Darlington Pairs 100s) Expensive and complex base drive circuit. Hence not popular in new products. SOA- second breakdownrequires snubber )
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1
IB1 IB2
+ VCE _
ic= ib
E (emitter)
Normally used when higher current gain is required Triple Darlington can be selected for more current gain, but with higher Vce drop and slow switching speed
= I c I B1 = (I c1 + I c 2 ) I B1 =
I c1 I B1
Ic2 I B1
Ic2 I B2 I B1 + I c1 = 1 + I I = 1 + 2 I B 2 B1 B1 = 1 + 2 (1 + 1 ) = 1 + 2 + 1 2
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v-i characteristics
Available in 1970 Three terminal device (GSD). Voltage control device ( Vgs control ID). No reverse voltage capability. Ratings: Voltage VDS < 500V, current IDS < 300A. Frequency f > 100KHz. For some low power devices (few hundred watts) may go up to MHz range. Turning on and off is very simple. To turn on: VGS = +15V To turn off: VGS = 0 V and 0 V to turn off. Gate drive circuit is simple
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MOSFET characteristics
Basically low voltage device. High voltage device are available up to 600V but with limited current. Can be paralleled quite easily for higher current capability. Has positive temperature coefficient, results in nonexistence of second breakdown. (avoiding the creation of hot spot) Has high input impedance, so easily connected to CMOS or TTL logic. Internal (dynamic) resistance between drain and source during on state, RDS(ON), , limits the power handling capability of MOSFET. High losses especially for high voltage device due to RDS(ON) . Dominant in high frequency (>100kHz) and low power application . Biggest application is in switched-mode power supplies. CoolMOS ? (Rdson half of the NORMAL MOSFET for the same V & I rating - higher efficiency)
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VGE
E (emitter)
VCE (sat)
VCE
IGBT: symbol
v-i characteristics
Ratings: Voltage: VCE < 3.3 kV, Current,: IC < 1.2kA currently available. Latest: HVIGBT 4.5kV/1.2kA. Switching frequency up to 100 kHz. Typical applications: 20-50 kHz.
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Vak
GTO: Symbol
v-i characteristics
Behave like normal thyristor, but can be turned off using gate signal (applied negative voltage across VGK) However turning off is difficult. Need very large reverse gate current (normally 1/5 of anode current) and longer off time (tail current). E.g. a 2500V, 1000A GTO requires a peak negative gate current of 250 A. Gate drive design is very difficult due to very large reverse gate current at turn off. Ratings: Highest power ratings switch: Voltage: Vak<5 kV; Current: Ia<5 kA. Frequency<2kHz. Very stiff competition: Low end-from IGBT. High end from IGCT
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IGCT
IGCT: Symbol Among the latest Power Switches. Conducts like normal thyristor (latching), but can be turned off using gate signal, similar to IGBT turn off; VGT of 20V is sufficient (fast rising turn-off pulse with very short duration) The gate drive requirement decrease by a factor of 5 compared to GTO. Power switch is integrated with the gate-drive unit. Ratings: Voltage: Vak< 6.5 kV; Current: Ia< 4 kA. Frequency<1KHz. Currently 10kV device is being developed. Very low on state voltage: 2.7 V for 4 kA device
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a) Equivalent cct
b) symbol
New recently commercially available (Harris SemiCon.) Basically a Thyristor with two MOSFETs built into the gate structure (ON-FET turns ON MCT and OFF-FET turns OFF MCT) Turn on MCT by turning on M1 - Apply positive gate-cathode voltage Turn off MCT by turning on M2 - Apply negative gate-anode voltage Low on-state losses with high current capability
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DIODE
SCR
BJT
MOSFET
IGBT
GTO
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MCT
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1GW
Thyristor
10MW
GTO/IGCT
IGBT
MOSFET
100kHz 1MHz
10MHz
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Control Circuit
Driver Circuit
Power switch
Interface between control (low power electronics) and (high power) switch. Functions: Amplification: amplifies control signal to a level required to drive power switch Isolation: provides electrical isolation between power switch and logic level Minimise switching losses ( by fast switching transition) Complexity of driver varies markedly among switches. MOSFET/IGBT drivers are simple GTO and BJT drivers are very complicated and expensive.
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+ G + VGS _ D VDC S _
B1
Note: MOSFET requires VGS = +15V for turn on and 0 V to turn off. LM311 is a simple op-amp with open collector output Q1. When B1 is high, Q1 conducts. VGS is pulled to ground. MOSFET is off. When B1 is low, Q1 will be off. VGS is pulled to VGG. If VGG is set to +15V, the MOSFET turns on. Effectively, the power to turn-on the MOSFET comes from external power supply, VGG (inject (sourcing) enough current to charge MOSFET capacitor Cgs)
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Isolation
R1 ig
+
vak
-
Pulse source
R2 iak
LED Photo-transistor
D1
Q1
A1
To driver
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Driver Circuit
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AC power in
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Thy
Availabilty State of Tech. Voltage ratings Current ratings Switch Freq. On-state Voltage Drive Circuit Comm-ents
FET Early 80s Mature/ improve 500V 200A 1MHz I* Rds (on) Very simple
Good performan ce in high freq.
IGBT Late 80s Rapid improve 3.3kV 1.2kA 100kHz 2-3V Very simple
Best overall performanc e.
IGCT Mid 90s Rapid improvem ent 6.5kV 4kA 1kHz 3V Simple
Replacing GTO
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Device Applications
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Application examples
For each of the following application, choose the best power switches and reason out why. An inverter for the light-rail train (LRT) locomotive operating from a DC supply of 750 V. The locomotive is rated at 150 kW. The induction motor is to run from standstill up to 200 Hz, with power switches frequencies up to 10 kHz. A switch-mode power supply (SMPS) for remote telecommunication equipment is to be developed. The input voltage is obtained from a photovoltaic array that produces a maximum output voltage of 100 V and a minimum current of 200 A. The switching frequency should be higher than 100 kHz. A HVDC transmission system transmitting power of 300 MW from one ac system to another ac system both operating at 50 Hz, and the DC link voltage operating at 2.0 kV.
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Ideal switch
Real switch
Ideal switch: Zero voltage drop across it during turn-on (Von). Although the forward current ( Ion ) may be large, the losses on the switch is zero. Real switch: Exhibits forward conduction voltage (between 1-3 V, depending on type of switch) during turn on. Losses (on state) is measured by product of volt-drop across the device Von with the current, Ion, averaged over the period.
Mosfet: I2.Rdson.D BJT: ic.Vce(sat).D+ib.Vbe(sat)
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Switching loss
v i v
P=vi
i
Energy
time
time
During turn-on and turn off, ideal switch requires zero transition time. Voltage and current are switched instantaneously. Power loss due to switching is zero
Real switch:
During switching transition, the voltage requires time to fall and the current requires time to rise. The switching losses is the product of device voltage
and current during transition. For inductive load, the switch loss can be given as
PL = 0.5VsIL(tr+tf)fs
where fs is switching frequency ,IL = load current, tf & tr = rise and fall time of load current
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Switching power loss is proportional to: switching frequency turn-on and turn-off times
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Let say Tj=100oC, Ta = 25oC, and total power loss is PT = PD PT = T/Rth =(Tj-Ta)/Rth Where Rth = total thermal resistance, = Rj-c+Rchs+Rhs-a Tj= Junction Temp,. Ta = ambient temp. Rj-c and Rc-hs are given in the device(M) datasheet, then the Rhs-a can be calculated
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Let say Tj=100oC, Ta = 25oC, and total power loss is PT = PD1 + PD2 PT = T/Rth =(Tj-Ta)/Rth Where Rth = total thermal resistance, Tj= Junction Temp,. PD = diode power loss
Rj-c and Rc-hs are given in the device datasheet, then the Rhs-a can be calculated
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Snubbers
+VL Ls i + Vin + Vce Vce
PCB construction, wire loops creates stray inductance, Ls. Using KVL,
di vin = vs + vce = Ls + vce dt di vce = vin Ls dt since di dt is negative (turning off) di vce = vin + Ls dt
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RCD Snubbers
The voltage across the switch is bigger than the supply (for a short moment). This is spike. The spike may exceed the switch rated blocking voltage and causes damage due to over-voltage. A snubber is put across the switch. An example of a snubber is an RCD circuit shown below turn-off snubber Snubber circuit smoothened the transition and make the switch voltage rise more slowly. In effect it dampens the high voltage spike to a safe value. Or an electrical circuit used to suppress ("snub") electrical transients. Vce Ls
D R+
Vce
Vce rated
time
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Snubbers
In general, snubbers are used for: turn-on: to minimize large over currents through the device at turn-on (reduce dI/dt ) turn-off: to minimize large over voltages across the device during turn-off ( reduce dV/dt). Stress reduction: to shape the device switching waveform such that the voltage and current associated with the device are not high simultaneously. Switches and diodes requires snubbers. However, new generation of IGBT, MOSFET and IGCT do not require it.
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Snubber Circuit
e.g. Turn-off RCD snubber dV/dt
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Pulses (nonshaded)
10 -5 sec
Pmax = Vce x Ic
T j,max
Power limit
10
-4 sec
DC (shaded)
10
-3 sec
dc
Voltage limit
log ( v ) BV CEO CE
Second Breakdown when high voltage and high current occurs simultaneously during turn-off, a hot spot is formed & device failed by thermal runaway
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Current limit
I DM
pulses
-5 sec
10
10 -4 sec T j,max
Power limit
10
-3 sec
DC
BV DSS
DC
Voltage limit
log (
v)
DS
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Practical switch
Finite blocking voltage with small current flow during turn-off
Finite current flow and appreciable voltage drop during turn-on (e.g. 2-3V for IGBT) Requires finite time to reach maximum voltage and current. Requires time to turn on and off. In general voltage driven devices (IGBT, MOSFET) requires small power for triggering. GTO requires substantial amount of current to turn off.
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