IV.

Hausdor Topological Spaces

A. Open Sets in Euclidean k-space
28 Oct 2011
Denition. Given x R
k
and r > 0, the open ball of centre x and radius r is
B[x, r) =
_
y R
k
: |y x| < r
_
.
A subset U of R
k
is open if and only if
x U, r > 0 : B[x, r) U. ()
(Intuition: From every point x in U, moving in any direction is allowed in U, at least
for distances below r.)
Remark. For xed x in R
k
and r > 0, the set U = B[x; r) is an open set (so the
name open ball is well-deserved).
Indeed, pick any x in U. Then |x x| < r, so
def
= r |x x| > 0.
To show that B[x, ) U, pick any z B[x, ): then |z x| < ,
so
|z x| = |z x +x x| |z x| +|x x| < r.
That is, z B[x, r) = U. So B[x, ) U, as required.
Remark. In Euclidean 2-space, U = {(x, y) : y > 0} is open; C = {(x, y) : y 0}
is not open but C
c
def
= {(x, y) : y < 0} is open; L = {(x, y) : y > 0 or x 0} is not
open and L
c
is not open either.
Notation. 1. T =
_
U R
k
: U is an open set
_
, the usual topology on R
k
.
2. N(x) = {S P(X) : some U T obeys x U S}, the set of neighbour-
hoods of x. [Some writers insist on using only open sets as neighbourhoods.
There is no good reason for this restriction.]
Convergence. Convergence x
n
x in R
k
can be expressed equivalently as
(a) > 0, N N : n > N, x
n
B[ x; ).
(b) S N( x), N N : n > N, x
n
S.
(ba): Assume (b). Given > 0, take S = B[ x; ): then S N(x), so conclusion
of (a) follows.
(ab): Assume (a). Given S N( x), choose > 0 such that B[ x; ) S. Apply (a)
to this . Get back N such that all n > N give x
n
B[ x; ). For these same n, we
have x
n
S, by choice of above.
Properties of Open Sets. (i) Both and R
k
are open (i.e., T and R
k
T ).
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2 PHILIP D. LOEWEN
(ii) Any union of open sets is open. That is, if G is any collection of open sets, then
dening U =

G produces an open set. Recall that

G =

GG
G.
(iii) Any intersection of nitely many open sets is open (i.e., if U
1
, . . . , U
n
T ,
then U
1
U
n
T ).
(iv) Whenever x and y are distinct points of R
k
, there exist disjoint open sets U and
V such that x U and y V .
[Sketch justications; use

n
( , 1/n) to show importance of niteness in (iii).]
(i) Clearly X = R
k
is open; and U = T because there are no points x in U
to falsify ().
(ii) Let G be any subset of T , and consider U =

G =

GG
G. If x U,
then there exists G G such that x G T . By () for G, > 0 s.t.
B[x, ) G U.
(iii) Use induction, dening
P(n) : T contains any intersection of n members of T .
Start with n = 2. If U
1
, U
2
T , let U = U
1
U
2
. For any x in U, we have
x U
1
=
1
> 0 : B[x,
1
) U
1
,
x U
2
=
2
> 0 : B[x,
2
) U
2
.
Take = min {
1
,
2
} to see B[x, ) U
1
U
2
= U, as required.
Now assume P(n) is true, and let U
1
, . . . , U
n+1
be given members of T .
Then
U
def
=
n+1

k=1
U
k
= [U
1
U
2
U
n
] U
n+1
displays U as an intersection of two sets: the rst is open by P(n), and the
second (U
n+1
) is open by hypothesis. Hence U is open by P(2). This estab-
lishes P(n+1), and it follows from the principle of mathematical induction
that P(k) is true for all k N.
(iv) If x, y R
k
obey x = y, then |y x| > 0. So let = |y x|/2: then
B[x, ) B[y, ) = .
(z LHS |z x| < , |z y| <
|y x| = |(y z) + (z x)| |y z| +|z x| <
1
2
|y x| +
1
2
|y x|,
a contradiction.) This conrms (iv), since both B[x, ) and B[y, ) are open.
////
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IV. Hausdor Topological Spaces 3
B. Hausdor Topological Spaces
Denition. A topological space consists of two objectsa set X, and a family T
of subsets of X called the open setsrelated by properties (i)(iii) below:
(i) Both and X are open (i.e., T and X T ).
(ii) Any union of open sets is open. That is, for any subset G of T , one has

G T .
(iii) Any intersection of nitely many open sets is open. That is, if N N and
U
1
, . . . , U
N
T , then U
1
U
N
T .
We will deal only with Hausdor topological spaces, which also obey
(iv) Whenever x and y are distinct points of X, there exist disjoint open sets U and
V such that x U and y V .
We write HTS instead of Hausdor Topological Space.
Notation. For x X, write N(x) = {S P(X) : some U T obeys x U S}.
This is the set of neighbourhoods of x.
Example. (a) Discrete Topology. For any X one may consider
T = {U : U X} .
In this topology, every set is open, and conditions (i)(iv) are obvious.
(b) A non-Hausdor topology (the only one well ever consider!). Take X = {1, 2, 3}
and T = {, {1, 2}, {1, 3}, {1}, X}. Conditions (i)(iii) clearly hold, but (iv) fails
on x = 2, y = 3.
(c) The usual topology on R
k
. Take X = R
k
. Dene T by saying that U T i
every point x in U has this property: for some > 0 (depending on x),
U B[x, )
def
=
_
y R
k
: |y x| <
_
. ()
Conditions (i)(iv) are demonstrated in Section A.
C. Open Sets and Interior
Lemma. In a HTS (X, T ), with A X, TFAE:
(i) A is open;
(ii) For every x A, there exists an open set U obeying both x U and U A.
Proof. (iii) Trivial: choose U = A.
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4 PHILIP D. LOEWEN
(iii) For each x in A, choose an open set U
x
obeying both x U
x
and U
x
A.
Then let
U =
_
xA
U
x
.
As a union of open sets, U is open; since U
x
A for all x, we have U A; and for
every x in A, we have x U
x
U, so A U. Thus A = U, and A is open. ////
Denition. Let A be any set in a HTS (X, T ). The interior of A is the set
A

= {x A : x U and U A for some U T } .

(Alternative notation: A

= int A = {x A : A N(x)}.)
Clearly, whenever A B then A

. Intuitively, A

is the largest open

subset of A, as we now prove.
Proposition. (a) A

is open, and A

A.
(b) If G is open and G A, then G A

.
(c) A is open if and only if A = A

.
Proof. (a) Suppose z A

. Then U N(z) T such that U A. Every x in U

obeys
U N(x) and U A, i.e., x A

.
Hence U A

. Since z is arbitrary in A

, the Lemma above implies A

is open.
(b) For any open G A, pick any z G. Then G N(z) and G A, so z A

.
Hence G A

.
(c) () Obvious from (a). () A A

holds for any A. When A is open, choosing

G = A in part (b) gives the reverse inclusion. Hence equality holds. ////
Example. If a < b in R, then [a, b]

= [a, b)

= (a, b]

= (a, b)

= (a, b); Q

= .
Remark. A

is the largest open subset of A. The smallest open subset is ; the largest
open superset is X. The smallest open superset may fail to exist. For example, any
open superset of [a, b] must contain an open interval of the form (a 1/n, b + 1/n)
for some n N; it is impossible to choose a smallest one. (Note that

nN
_
a
1
n
, b +
1
n
_
= [a, b] .
This also shows that an innite intersection of open sets may fail to be open.)
D. Closed Sets and Closure
Denition. In a HTS (X, T ), a set A X is closed i A
c
is open.
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IV. Hausdor Topological Spaces 5
Remark. Sets in (X, T ) come in 4 types:
(1) open,
(2) closed,
(3) neither open nor closed,
(4) both open and closed [ and X lie here].
Lemma. In a HTS (X, T ), with A X, TFAE:
(i) A is closed.
(ii) For every x A, some neighbourhood U N(x) obeys U A
c
.
Proof. Immediate from similar lemma on open sets. ////
Prop. In a HTS (X, T ),
(a) Any intersection of closed sets is closed;
(b) Any nite union of closed sets is closed.
Proof. (a) Given a collection of closed sets C
i
, i I, consider C =

iI
C
i
. Observe
C
c
=
_

iI
C
i
_
c
=
_
iI
C
c
i
.
Each set C
c
i
is open, so C
c
is a union of open sets. Thus C
c
is open.
(b) If C = C
1
C
n
is a nite union of closed sets, then
C
c
= C
c
1
C
c
n
is a nite intersection of open sets. This makes C
c
open. ////
Denition. Let A be a set in the HTS (X, T ). The closure of A is
A =
_
(A
c
)

_
c
.
(Alternative notation: A = cl A.)
The denition implies monotonicity for this operation:
A B = A B.
Intuitively, A is the smallest closed superset of A, as we now prove.
Prop. (a) A is closed, and A A.
(b) If F is closed and F A, then F A.
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6 PHILIP D. LOEWEN
(c) A is closed if and only if A = A.
Proof. (a) As the complement of the open set (A
c
)

, the set A is closed. Also,

(A
c
)

A
c
=
_
(A
c
)

_
c
(A
c
)
c
, i.e., A A.
(b) Suppose F closed and F A. Then F
c
is open, so F
c
= (F
c
)

, and
F A = F
c
A
c
= F
c
= (F
c
)

(A
c
)

= F = (F
c
)
c

_
(A
c
)

_
c
= A.
(c) () Obvious, from (a). () If A is closed, then choosing F = A in (b) gives
A A. Hence, by (a), A = A. ////
Example. If a < b in R, then (a, b) = [a, b) = (a, b] = [a, b] = [a, b]; Q = R.
E. Limit Points and Isolated Points
Denition. Let A be a set in a HTS (X, T ). A point z in X is a limit point of A
exactly when
U N(z), U (A\ {z}) = .
The set of limit points for A is denoted A

. Other authors call these cluster points

or accumulation points of A, and call A

the derived set for A.

Note that if A B, then A

.
Example. In R, a < b implies (a, b)

= [a, b]

= [a, b]; Q

= R and Z

= .
Prop. For any set A in a HTS (X, T ), TFAE:
(i) A is closed.
(ii) A A

.
Proof. (iii) We prove the contrapositive, (ii) (i). So suppose A

contains a
point z A. Then every U N(z) obeys U A = , hence disobeys U A
c
.
Since z A
c
has no neighbourhood contained in A
c
, the set A
c
is not open. Hence
A is not closed.
(iii) We show (i) (ii). So suppose A is not closed. Then A
c
is not open, so
some z in A
c
has property that every z-neighbourhood U fails to satisfy U A
c
.
I.e., U N(z), U A = . Since z A, we have A = A\ {z}. Hence
U N(z), U (A\ {z}) = .
That is, z A

. But z A, so A A

. ////
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IV. Hausdor Topological Spaces 7
Prop. For any set A in a HTS (X, T ), the set A

is closed.
Proof. Home Practice. ////
Theorem. For any set A, one has A = A A

.
Proof. () Let F = A. Then F is closed, so F F

. Also, F A, so F

.
Hence F F

, and F A A

.
() Let F = A A

. It suces to show that F is closed, since F A is clear,

so this will give F A. So consider G = F
c
= A
c
(A

)
c
. If z G, then z A

, so
some U N(z) obeys
= U (A\ {z}) = U A (since also z A).
Thus U A
c
. From this we get U
c
A: but U
c
is closed, so U
c
A A

, and thus
U (A

)
c
. Hence U A
c
(A

)
c
, as required. ////
Denition. For a set A in a HTS (X, T ), the collection of isolated points is A\A

.
I.e., x is an isolated point of A i both
x A and U N(x) : A U = {x} .
Example. In (R, usual),
Z consists only of isolated points;
Q has no isolated points;
A = [Q (, 0)] N has A

= (, 0], so the isolated points of A form the

set N.
F. Boundary Points
Denition. Given a HTS (X, T ), let A X. A point z in X is a boundary point
of A i
G N(z), both A G = and A
c
G = .
The set of boundary points of A is denoted A.
Remark. Boundary points may lie in either A or A
c
. In fact, the denition is un-
changed when A and A
c
are interchanged, so we have
A = (A
c
).
Example. In R, (a, b) = (a, b] = [a, b) = [a, b] = {a, b}; Q = R; Z = Z; R =
. Notice that Q R but Q is a strict superset of R. There is no monotonicity
relation for the boundary operation.
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8 PHILIP D. LOEWEN
For a set A in a HTS (X, T ),
(a) A = A A
c
.
(b) A is closed if and only if A A.
(c) A is open if and only if A A
c
.
Proof. Home Practice. ////
Set Extraction Summary. Given a set A in a HTS (X, T ),
A
c
= X \ A,
A

= interior of A,
A = closure of A,
A

= all limit points of A,

A = boundary of A.
E.g., in R
k
, the set A = B[0, 1) {2e
1
} =
_
x R
k
: |x| < 1
_
{(2, 0, . . . , 0)} has
A
c
=
_
x R
k
: |x| 1
_

_
x R
k
: x = 2e
1
_
,
A

= B[0, 1),
A =
_
x R
k
: |x| 1
_
{2e
1
} ,
A

=
_
x R
k
: |x| 1
_
,
A =
_
x R
k
: |x| = 1
_
{2e
1
} .
G. Subspaces; Relative Topologies
Denition. Let (X, T ) be a HTS, and let Y X. Dene
T
Y
= {G Y : G T } .
Then (Y, T
Y
) is itself a HTS (check dening cdx (i)(iv) at home), called a subspace
of X. (There is no simple relationship with the concept of subspace in linear
algebra.) To reduce ambiguity when working with a space and its subspaces, we call
a set A Y open relative to Y if and only if A T
Y
.
If the set Y X is open to start with, then T
Y
T , so any subset of Y is open
relative to T
Y
i it is open in the usual sense. In particular, since X is an open subset
of X, the terms open relative to X and simply open mean the same thing.
But if Y X is not open, then T
Y
may contain sets not in T : in this case, a set
may be open relative to Y without being open in X.
Example. Let X = R. If Y = [0, 1], the interval (1/2, 1] is open relative to Y , but
not open in X. If Y = Q, the set W = {x Q : 0 < x < 1} is open relative to Y ,
but not open in X. ////
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IV. Hausdor Topological Spaces 9
H. Compactness
Denition. Given a HTS (X, T ), let K X. To call K compact means that for
every collection of open sets G such that
K
_
G =
_
GG
G, (1)
there exist N N and sets G
1
, . . . , G
N
in G such that
K G
1
G
N
.
A collection of open sets G obeying (1) is an open cover of K; calling K compact
means, every open cover has a nite subcover.
Remarks. 1. Compactness is the next best thing to niteness. Its so valuable that
when it is absent, we sometimes switch to a new topology in which compactness
is present. This is why some abstract understanding of topologies is useful.
2. The quantier every concerning open covers is essential. We exploit compact-
ness when it is present by choosing an open cover G whose open sets all share
some desirable property, which is then automatic for all sets arising in the nite
subcover. See Example (c) below, and the proofs to follow.
Example. (a) Every nite set is compact.
Pf: If K = {x
1
, . . . , x
N
} and G is an open cover for K, then each x
i
in K must
belong to some set G
i
in G. Thus {G
1
, . . . , G
N
} G is a nite subcover of K.
(b) In R, the set S = {1/n : n N} is not compact, but the set S = S {0} is
compact.
Pf: Illustrates the quantiers, the negation, and how adding that one point can
save the whole setup.
(c) In R, the open interval (0, 1) is not compact.
Pf: Let G = {G
n
: n N}, where G
n
=
_
1
n
, 1
_
for n N. By Archimedes, every
x in (0, 1) lies in some G
n
, so G is an open cover for (0, 1). But no nite subcover
exists. Indeed, for any nite subset G
n
1
, . . . , G
n
N
of G, the union
N
_
i=1
G
n
i
=
_
min
_
1
n
1
,
1
n
2
, . . . ,
1
n
N
_
, 1
_
fails to contain innitely many small positive numbers x in (0, 1).
(d) [Skipped.] Suppose K X is compact. If every point of K has a neighbourhood
containing only nitely many elements of K, then K itself is nite.
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10 PHILIP D. LOEWEN
Proof. For each x in K, choose G
x
N(x) with G
x
K nite. Evidently
G = {G
x
: x K} is an open cover for K. Compactness implies that G has a
nite subcover, say
G
x
1
, G
x
2
, . . . , G
x
N
for some N.
In particular,
K = K
N
_
n=1
G
x
n
=
N
_
n=1
(K G
x
n
)
is a union of nitely many nite sets, hence itself a nite set. ////
In the example (b) above, the sets G
n
pile up near the point 0 in a way
that depends on the fact that 0 . The next result shows that boundary points
outside the set always spoil compactness.
Prop. Every compact subset of R must be bounded.
Proof. Consider the open cover G = {(n, n) : n N}. ////
Prop. Any compact set K in HTS (X, T ) must be closed.
Proof. We show K
c
is open: pick any y K
c
. Then for each x in K, use Hausdor
property to nd open sets U
x
, V
x
such that
x U
x
, y V
x
, and U
x
V
x
= (i.e., V
x
U
c
x
).
Clearly
K
_
xK
{x}
_
xK
U
x
.
By compactness, there exist x
1
, . . . , x
N
a nite list such that K
N
_
k=1
U
x
k
. Hence
K
c

_
N
_
k=1
U
x
k
_
c

k=1
U
c
x
k

k=1
V
x
k
.
Here V
def
=

N
k=1
V
x
k
is open (its a nite intersection of open sets) and y V (since
y V
x
x K). Thus K
c
is open, and K is closed. ////
Compactness is very valuable. The dening property is useful in arguments, but
dicult to check by hand. Seek alternative characterizations.
Example. Recall: all compact sets are closed. However, not all closed sets are
compact.
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IV. Hausdor Topological Spaces 11
Proof. In R, consider the closed set F = [1, +). The intervals
G
n
= (n 1, n + 1) , n N
evidently provide an open cover for F (sketch), but since each set G
n
contains exactly
one integer, any nite subcollection of the G
n
s will fail to cover innitely many
(integer) elements of F. Thus F has no nite subcover. ////
Prop. If F is closed, and F K for some compact K, then F is compact.
Proof. Let G = {G

: A} be an open cover of F. Since F is closed, F

c
is open,
so an open cover of the compact K is provided by
{G

: A} {F
c
} .
Extract a nite subcover. It will consist of G

1
, . . . , G

N
for some N and possibly
F
c
:
K (F
c
)
N
_
k=1
G

k
.
Now since F K and F F
c
= , the sets G

1
, . . . , G

N
are enough to cover F.
These sets provide a nite subcover consisting of sets from the original G. ////
Cor. If F is closed and K is compact, then F K is compact.
Proof. (Optionalhome practice.) Since K is compact, it must be closed. Thus
F K is closed. This makes F K a closed subset of a compact set (namely K), so
F K is compact. ////
Denition. A family of sets F has the nite intersection property if whenever
N N and F
1
, . . . , F
N
are sets in F, one has
N

n=1
F
n
= .
Theorem. Given a HTS (X, T ) and a set K X, TFAE:
(a) K is compact.
(b) K is closed, and every collection of closed subsets of K with the nite intersection
property has nonempty intersection.
Proof. (a)(b) Assume K compact. Then K is closed by a previous result. Well
use contraposition to show that under these conditions, FIP implies nonempty inter-
section.
Let F = {F

: A} be a collection of closed subsets of K; dene F =

A
F

. If F = , then
K X = F
c
=
_

A
F

_
c
=
_
A
F
c

.
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12 PHILIP D. LOEWEN
Thus G

= F
c

, A, provides an open cover for K. Extract a nite subcover,

G

1
, . . . , G

N
: then it follows that
K
N
_
n=1
F
c

n
, i.e., K
c

n=1
F

n
.
But each F

is a subset of K, so also K
N

n=1
F

n
; consequently
N

n=1
F

n
= . This
shows that FIP fails, and completes the proof.
(b)(a) We prove the contrapositive, (a) (b). Thus, suppose K is closed,
but not compact. Then K has an open cover G = {G

: A}, admitting no nite

subcover. We may assume G

K = for each A. (Removing from G all sets

containing no elements of K does not dilute the covering property, and produces a
family which still has no nite subcover.) For each A, dene F

= K \ G

;
let F = {F

: A}. Then F is a family of closed subsets of K, and any nite

collection indexed by
1
, . . . ,
N
obeys
F

1
F

N
=
N

n=1
K G
c

n
= K
N

n=1
G
c

n
= K
_
N
_
n=1
G

n
_
c
.
Since K has no nite subcover in G, this set is nonempty. Thus F has the FIP.
However, the intersection of all sets in F is

A
F

A
K G
c

n
= K

A
G
c

n
= K
_
_
A
G

n
_
c
= ,
since G covers K. This establishes (b). ////
Proposition. In a HTS (X, T ), suppose K is compact and A K is an innite set.
Then = A

K.
Proof. Contraposition: Suppose K is compact, A K, and A

= . Then A

A,
so A is closed. Since A is a subset of the compact set K, A is also compact. Now
A \ A

= A, so every point x in A is isolated. I.e., each x A has a neighbourhood

U
x
such that U
x
A = {x}. The collection of open sets G = {U
x
: x A} clearly
covers A. By compactness, there must be some N N and x
1
, . . . , x
N
A for which
A is covered by U
x
1
, . . . , U
x
N
. It follows that
A {x
1
, . . . , x
N
},
i.e., the set A is nite. ////
File hts, version of 02 Nov 2011, page 12. Typeset at 21:57 November 1, 2011.