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Description of glass
- Glass is a liquid that has cooled to a rigid state without crystallizing - Glass is not a super-cooled liquid but an inorganic solid with an amorphous noncrystalline structure
Viscosity (dPa s) 105 108.6 1014 1014.3 1020 State Working point Softening point Annealing point Transition temperature, Tg Room temperature Temp (0C) 1040 720 540 530 20
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Source: Glass in Building, Button & Pye & Structural Use of Glass, Haldimann, Luible, Overend
Structure of glass
Poissons ratio Coeff. of thermal expansion Thermal conductivity cp Average refractive index Emissivity n
E th = do
where, th is the theoretical cleavage strength, E is Youngs modulus (70GPa), is the surface energy (3.71Jm-2) and do is inter-atomic spacing (1.6)
Reasons for the variability in strength Micro & Macroscopic - Surface defects - Stress concentrations - Structure of glass - Size of panel - Rate of loading - Surface condition
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tip
c = 1 + 2 r
For a plate with a circular hole, tip= 3 For a thread root, tip= 15 If c = 10m & r = 1.6, then tip= 500
tip 2c
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E f = c
where, E is Youngs modulus, is the surface energy and c is size of the defect.
2c
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Fibre interactions
Phase transformation
Micro-cracking
The larger the sample, the more chance of finding a critical flaw.
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1 MPa / Sec
1 MPa / Hour
1 MPa / Day
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H2O
(atmosphere)
H+
(glass)
NaOH
(alkali)
The longer the glass is under tensile stress during testing, the more time available for stress corrosion to take place.
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12-17
16-22
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t1 2 = 1 t 2
1 n
Graph showing the effect of stress corrosion (blue dots represent unbroken samples)
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Tempered glass
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The compressive stress layer (20% of t) acts as a buffer to crack growth. Its magnitude at the surface is 2x that of the centre tensile region. Notes Toughened Glass: BS EN 12150 quantifies stress by destructive particle count, however comparative tests have shown that the required compressive stress is 80 to 90 MPa* (* source, Stress measurement & fragmentation, Schiavonato, GPD 2005) GANA recommendation for North America = 77.2MPa 21
The compressive stress layer (20% of t) acts as a buffer to crack growth. Its magnitude at the surface is 2x that of the centre tensile region. Notes Heat Strengthened Glass: BS EN 1863 quantifies stress by destructive particle count, however comparative tests have shown that the required compressive stress is 35 to 60 MPa* (* source, Stress measurement & fragmentation, Schiavonato, GPD 2005) GANA recommendation for North America = 38.6MPa 22
ASTM GANA E1300-09 2004 P 3 sec 23.3 MPa 46.6 MPa 93.1 MPa P 60 sec -
Source : Wymond & Arumugam, Meinhart Faade Technology PTY, GPD India 2008 (updated)
Source : Wymond & Arumugam, Meinhart Faade Technology PTY, GPD India 2008 (updated)
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Source : Pilkington Glass Consultants, for UK loads and glass product standards
USA (prod) GANA 2004 19.3 MPa 38.6 MPa 77.2 MPa
USA (design)
EU EU Planar (product) (design) (prod) draft Approx. prEN 13474 45-55 MPa 113 MPa
ASTM en12150 E1300-09 en1863 23.3 MPa 46.6 MPa 93.1 MPa -
Comparison for interest only Allowable stress values are for short term loading prEN13474 are personal calculations code not yet complete to publish
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Single, (S2x1000)/180 or 2 edge supported glass, where 50mm (whichever less) S=span [m] between supports IGU, (S2x1000)/540 or 20mm (whichever less) 19mm L/60 b/50 2 edge supported glass, where S=span [m] between supports Deflection of supported edges less than L/175, L=length Deflection of unframed toughened glass, L=length Deflection of unframed Planar system, b=width of panel
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Source : Extract of table 6.4, IStructE Structural use of glass in buildings, 1999
(Video clip)
1.6x2.3m puck support panel : make up, 10/16/6 Test Load, 1054Pa : Cable deflection, 118mm
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(Video clip)
1.8x1.8m Intrafix concept panel : make up, 6/16/12 Test Load, 5kPa : Deflection, 120mm
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Project details: - insulated laminated panels - make-up, 10/16/6-1.52pvb-6 - tension support system - horizontal
Friction connection
- Cantilevered toughened glass fin (friction connected) - 530mm x 3500mm x 19mm - Typical max. design moment, 40kNm - Design often limited by lateral torsional buckling
Cantilevered fin performance tests, Pilkington, UK
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(Video clip)
4.8m long, 19mm thk toughened cantilevered fin 65kNm bending moment
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- When providing additional lateral restraint to glass fins, Appendix H4, AS1288:1989 accurately predicts buckling loads (but with no safety factors!) - Toughening bow can significant reduce the lateral stability of fins unless the faade design accommodates this.
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Typical requirements: BS EN 12600 - 50kg twin tyre impactor - 450, 900, & 1200mm drop BS EN 356 - 4.11 kg steel ball - 1.5m to 9m drop height 10*/16/6 bolted unit, impactor height 1200mm
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BBC sponsored trials, 2006 What the 20th Century did for us. 5ft mini drop
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- EN14179 quotes a 1 in 400 ton frequency in heat soaked glass but this is an average! - Not all stones that cause spontaneous fracture are NiS (silicone formed by redox reaction with Al can also occur) - Spontaneous fracture is more often caused by impact, inservice damage and installation issues
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Edge Bright
Edge Fire
Pre-toughening work
Edge Splinter
Edge Chip
Surface Shell
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Aesthetic with if <1mm deep low structural risk & <25mm long Aesthetic only Aesthetic with medium structural risk If <3mm deep& <3mm long Not acceptable
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Key issues: - Toughened glass is durable and resistant to impact when the impact is understood and has been anticipated in design! - The risk of breakage due of toughened glass due to Nickel Sulphide can be reduced (EN14179) but not eradicated. - Toughened glass is vulnerable to edge damage and scratches and the effect of damage is difficult to quantify - Designing with monolithic toughened glass requires the engineer to ask, What happens when this glass breaks?
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c c
t = tensile stress
Relevant factors: - interlayer material type - temperature - load duration - load rate
Lc
Lt
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30
10 2
1 Hz 10 1
20
10
Strain Rate ~ 0.1/s
40
50
60
Temperature C
Engineering Strain, e
- stiffer than PVB over wide range of temperatures - higher tear energy (5 x PVB) - improved edge durability and transparency
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3 ply laminate 12mm toughened heat soaked glass Rated for 125psf with redundancy
Project details: - glass treads comprise of annealed laminated glass - glass stringer is curved, chemically toughened laminated glass - designed for seismic loading
Apple Store, Japan, Osaka Designed by Eckersley OCallaghan
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Project details: - first twin storey glass staircase - central glass core supporting cantilevered glass treads supporting stringers - outer stringer comprises 3ply chemically toughened laminate
Apple Store, 14th Street, New York Designed by Eckersley OCallaghan
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Project details: - glass fins laminated from 5ply 19mm low iron glass - fins spliced together with interlayer to create 35ft tool single span beams
Apple Store, Upper West Side, NY Designed by Eckersley OCallaghan
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Typical requirements: BS EN 12600 - 50kg twin tyre impactor - 450, 900, & 1200mm drop BS EN 356 - 4.11 kg steel ball - 1.5m to 9m drop height 10/2.28sgp/6, EN356 test, 4.11kg ball at 9m (2nd impact)
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Cycling requirements: +20 to +50psf +0 to +60psf +50 to +80psf +30 to +100psf -30 to -100psf -50 to -80psf -0 to -60psf -20 to -50psf Various broken laminates on hurricane cycling 3500x 300x 600x 100x 50x 1050x 50x 3350x
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Product 2 (PVB) Comblast trials, 2004 Blast resistance of Planar using pvb and Sentry Glass interlayer
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Key issues: - Laminated glass is generally more expensive & can add significant weight - The use of laminates will considerably improve post-fracture behaviour in most cases but is not the automatic answer it has become in some quarters - The performance of laminated glass is temperature and load duration dependent - Laminated glass will be significantly less durable - Laminated glass has a limit too!
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1920s Rolled Glass commonly used 1960 Float Process introduced by Pilkington
Crown Glass 59
C B
Hollow Spacer
D E
Edge seal components 62
Secondary Seal
Hollow Spacer
D E
Edge seal components
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36.75mm
Insulated units : make up, 10/16/6 Both units subject to EN 1279-6 : starting width, 32.5mm
33.16mm
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Condensation formation
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5) Connectivity - facades
5) Connectivity - facades
Point fixed systems: Fixed or articulated?
Planar Fixing
(inventor : Pilkington, 1982)
Rotule Fixing
Dutton & Martin (RFR), 1986)
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5) Connectivity - facades
(Pilkington video)
1.8x1.8m Intrafix concept panel : make up, 6/16/12 Test Load, 5kPa : Deflection, 120mm
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5) Connectivity - facades
Point fixed systems: Fixed: - smaller - articulated at support - rotation stiffness is difficult to model by FEA - reduced size can mean less site tolerance - smaller sizes requires better understanding of stresses Articulated: - larger - articulated at glass - more straightforward to model - articulation needed by design often misused to provide added site tolerance - larger pullout strengths
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5) Connectivity - facades
Faade connections in general: - glass dead load
- as high as 600kg per panel
- no glass to metal contact - no tight clamping of IGUs or laminates - corrosion resistant - vibration resistant - UV & moisture resistance plastics
Corner patch to laminated glass Pilkington 2009, Julliard College 75
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Apple Store, 5th Avenue, NY, May 2006 Designed by Eckersley OCallaghan
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