9691/01 and 9691/02 Computing

Hardware Part of the machinery/physical of a (computer) system

Software Part of the instructions/program/code to make the hardware work

Systems software (A set of programs) to control the hardware/operating system allowing communication with the system provide a platform to run the applications software allow communication between the software and the hardware

Translator The processor cannot obey high level language instructions So something must change these instructions into A language based around the computers instruction set

Operating system software Allows the hardware to work interface between hardware and software communication between the hardware provides environment for application software to run user interface sharing of resources security and privacy of file

Utility software System software Designed to perform a common place task E.g. o Back up To make a second copy of files In case the original is corrupted o File handling/file transfer/sorting To control access to files on storage/movement of files Used to index files and keep a record of where they are Used to sort and order files Page 1 of 17

9691/01 and 9691/02 Computing Used to search for files Used to rename files Copying of files To allow amendment o Error checking To ensure data transmission is not corrupted o Virus checker To continually scan for (and remove) viruses o Formatting/configuring/defragmenting To organise storage space o Peripheral drivers To control peripheral devices o Compression software To reduce the size of files o Recovery software/disk checker/disk scan To recover of fix either lost of corrupt files o Spooler To queue files Applications software (A program to) allow the system to produce useful work/perform useful tasks which would have to be done in some other way if not on a computer. E.g. o Word processor o to produce letters/documents o Spreadsheet o to produce accounts o Database o to store records of customers o DTP (Desk Top Publishing) o to produce inhouse magazine

Generic applications software The applications software that can be used in a range of circumstances

Integrated applications package A number of pieces of software That allow the user to do something useful/useful things That can communicate with each other/exchange data

Multiuser operating system Page 2 of 17

9691/01 and 9691/02 Computing Each terminal is (relatively) dumb Def. Many users using the single computer (simultaneously) Time slice for each user Computer switches between users/jobs Round robin system visiting each terminal in turn Terminals polled Use flags to signify whether they need their time slice or otherwise Triggers that next terminal is moved to If slice not completed moves to next terminal

Multitask operating system CPU ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit) o Carries out all arithmetic calculations o Comparisons based on logic operations o Input and output to and from the processor/communication with the outside world Control Unit o Manages the execution of instructions o Sends clock pulses o Times the processor Memory unit/IAS o Data/instructions are held (allowing access by the processor) Registers o Locations used for specific purposes PC is able to run more than one task Apparently simultaneously

Memory Storage of (any part of) OS and Applications programs and User files

Hard drive To store software/OS/application To store user files Data is not lost when the power is turned off

DVD Digital Versatile Disc Page 3 of 17

9691/01 and 9691/02 Computing Importation of software Playing music Backing up files on hard drive Copying other DVDs Stores large permanent files, e.g. encyclopaedia Creating archive Transport data

ROM Read Only Memory Cannot be altered Nonvolatile Contents of ROM not lost when the power is switched off Store bootstrap

RAM Random Access Memory RAM needs to be refreshed Store (user) files/software/OS/data (that are in use) RAM is volatile

CDROM Portable Stored optically Store user software, etc

Octal number system A number system in base 8 Relationship with binary form o Octal is binary digits in groups of 3 o From the right/add leading noughts at the left

Hexadecimal A number system in base 16 Relationship with binary form o First 4 bits from right give the units digit when turned into decimal o Next for give sixteens digit o And so on for length of number

BCD Binary coded decimal Uses 4 bits to represent one decimal number Page 4 of 17

9691/01 and 9691/02 Computing E.g. Denary: 124 to BCD: 0001 0010 0100

Character set Definition: The individual characters that a computer can distinguish Usage: o Each character is assigned a unique o Binary code o The number of bits necessary to code each character is a byte/2 bytes o Commonly, ASCII code are used o Assigning 7 bits/8 bits to each character o EBCDIC/extended ASCII/using 16 bits per character are alternatives Relationship with a byte o The number of characters in the character set must be o Less than or equal to the number of unique codes available in one bye

ASCII Backup Archive Online Online is when the user has direct communication/interact with the processor/computer Page 5 of 17 Copy to another media for long term storage Delete from system to free up hard drive space Needed for future requests for reference Regularly To removable storage device More than one copy Stored in different places Copies must be distinguishable as to version Use of transaction log/realisation that back will not recover latest version of files A standard set of characters (available to computer engineers/software designers) The set of characters that a computer can recognize Characters on a QWERTY keyboard Stored as a set of 8/7 bits Allowing 128 characters to be represented/256 characters

9691/01 and 9691/02 Computing Offline when there is no direct communication link (Internet) when computer devices are not under the direct control of the computer

Batch system The processing of large quantities Similar types of data Data input is collected together Processed as a single operation/at a particular time (when processor is free) Date/jobs require similar processing Results are not time dependent No human intervention/ Batch is offline to user E.g. o At an ATM Requests for full statements

Realtime system Input is processed fast enough (quickly/immediately) To influence the next input Online to processor E.g. o At an ATM Checking of PIN/Account status/card legitimacy

Source code The programs is produced by the programmer

Object code Program code after translation/executable code/intermediate code/machine code

Top down approach Dividing the problem into Smaller and smaller parts Until the individual problems are easily solved by a single process which can be linked to solve the problem

Bottom up programming

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9691/01 and 9691/02 Computing Program small modules then combining them to produce a larger structure

Modules Different people can work on it/ will be complete sooner/use individual skills Testing can be done more thoroughly/individually. (Modules separately tested) Debugging can be carried out more easily/smaller sections of code to be searched for errors. Library routines can be used/small routines may be repeated whereas whole programs are unlikely. Fewer errors/programmer will make fewer errors on a small program Easier to maintain/easier to understand(program/algorithm/problem)

Arithmetic error Inappropriate/impossible use of arithmetic e.g. division by zero

Syntax error Error in the grammar/language of a program E.g. Plint

Logic error Error in design of the program/error in logical flow/failure to follow algorithm E.g. jump to wrong part of the program/wrong arithmetic statement

Tools for identifying programming errors Translator diagnostics o Produced by translator o Giving indication of type of error o Position of error Tracetable o Giving values of variables o Throughout the run of code Variable dumps o Giving values of all (specified) variables o At a specific point in the code Stepping through the program o One line at a time to

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9691/01 and 9691/02 Computing o Find position of error Crossreferencing o To identify where variables are used in the code o Helps to identify duplication of variable names Use of break points o To stop the execution of the program code o At some sensible point to allow check on variables

Black box testing Inputs are applied to check that the expected output results Without knowing the method of solution

White box testing Tests the routes through a program/Testing of the algorithm (logic) of the solution

Alpha testing Is performed by the programmer/in house

Beta testing Is performed by members of the public/users

Choose test data Boundaries Different Input format Fractional input/result Negative, zero input Normal data

Why a program might not work Likes may be faulty Order of modules wrong Parameters passed may be illogical Clashes of variable names Clashes/calling of module names Variables declared in one module may be different data type in another Endless recursion

LIFO (Stack) One pointer Page 8 of 17

9691/01 and 9691/02 Computing Pointer to head of stack Values added and removed at same end

FIFO (Queue) Two pointers Queue moves through array Values added and removed at different ends of structure

Techniques for clarifying code Clear annotation of code/to explain the logic/e.g. procedures Modularise programs/small blocks of programs can be studied individually Meaningful variable and procedure names/immediately obvious what unknowns represent/unlikely to clash over name Indentation/ to show limits of constructs to show which instructions fit together

Character (char) Integer Whole number Any character on the keyboard/an ASCII character

Boolean Yes or no/True or false/2 state variable

Comparison between networking and standalone computers Advantage of Networking o Share hardware o Share software o Share files o Communicate using email o Automatic backup o Use any machine to access records Disadvantage of Networking o Files less secure o More difficult to manage/need technician/reliance on server o Spread of viruses

LAN Local Area Network Over short distance Page 9 of 17

9691/01 and 9691/02 Computing Hardwired

WAN Wide Area Network Long distance Needs other form of communication except hardwired Requires modem

Circuit switching Line of communication established (for duration of message) Advantage o Message does not need to be reordered at destination

Packet switching Parts of message follow own routes to destination Advantage o Messages cannot be intercepted o Efficient use of network

Serial transmission of data Data is sent one bit at a time/along a single line

Parallel transmission of data One byte is sent at a time/along the same number of channels as bits in a byte/multiple bits sent simultaneously

Simplex Mode Data can be transmitted in only one direction

Half Duplex Mode Data can be transmitted in both direction Data can only be transmitted in one direction at a time

Duplex Mode Data can be transmitted in both directions At the same time

Bus network Page 10 of 17

9691/01 and 9691/02 Computing All computers/terminals linked to central bus Limited number of peripherals shown Terminators on ends of bus Advantage o Simplicity of wiring o Computers can be added simply Disadvantage o Susceptible to damage to cable or a single machine. o Restricted size

Ring network Machines connected/communication between machines In a complete loop LAN

Star network Each machine has a direct connection with a central point Hub/server Limited number of peripherals shown Advantage o If one machine fails it does not affect the remainder

Protocol A set of rules To control transmission of data Parts of protocol o Baud rate To ensure that both devices are working at the same speed o Error checking To ensure that data is transferred correctly (both echoing back and parity are acceptable) o Transmission type To ensure device knows whether to send or listen o Packet size To enable receiver to know when packet is complete o Format (or coding) of data e.g. ASCII or EBCDIC o Control signals To inform recipient of data type/starting and ending

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9691/01 and 9691/02 Computing Layering a protocol The rules are arranged from a foundation level up Using connections Which will allow alteration to the protocol by simply substituting alternate layers Modules In predefined order Each does a specific task Advantages o To allow testing of individual layers o To allow different systems to have different implementation of the layers o To allow changing of one layer without alter all layers

Buffer Temporary storage Between the processor and the peripheral device Used to overcome speed mismatch So that processor can get on with other tasks

Interrupt Message from slower device (storage) To the processor Designed to make processor put current task to one side And deal with request Mention of vectored interrupts or priority of interrupts

HHL (High Level Language) Source code A small instruction set Which are close to spoken language in meaning Which combine in order to produce a program Problem oriented One to many with low level Advantage o Easier for the human to understand o Easier to spot errors when the program does not work o Tend to get fewer errors In the code Differences between executable form o HLL program is shorter o HLL is written in characters/executable in binary Page 12 of 17

9691/01 and 9691/02 Computing o o Procedure A subprogram, a set of commands which is part of a larger program and can be reused without the need for rewriting Memory locations are given names in HLL Can be run in executable form

Function (A procedure which) returns a single value (for each call)

Recursive procedure A procedure which calls itself From within the procedure

Repeat Loop Control is at end of loop/the loop must be repeated at least once

While Loop Control is at start of loop/the loop may not be executed at all

For Loop Counter used to count number of times loop is visited/value of counter known before loop is accessed

A Parity checks The number of ones in each byte of data Must be predetermined as either always odd or always even An extra (parity) bit as added to each byte (to maintain odd or even) Checked after transmission Incorrect parity indicates an error

Check sums All the bytes are treated as binary numbers which are added up Carry out of byte ignored The total (check sum) is transmitted with the data The data is also added after transmission The sum is compared with the transmitted value Different values indicate an error

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9691/01 and 9691/02 Computing User Interface Provides a means of communication between the user and the computer

HCI Humancomputer Interface The hardware that allows the user and the computer to communicate/interact The software that allows the user and the computer to communicate

GUI Graphical User Interface Graphical Use of icons to represent available files/applications WIMP o Windows o Icon o Menu o Pointer Advantage o No commands necessary/learned o Prompts user by offering alternatives o Natural to use because of point and click nature o Pictures used to illustrate operation

Formbased user interface Features o Defined areas of input/text boxes o List of possible alternative responses/(drop down) lists/ menus o (Radio) buttons o Check boxes/tick boxes o Cursor shows position of next input o Instructions can be output on screen/Labels/Captions o Tabs/Subforms Why is used? o Clear instructions to prompt user o Questions can be printed for user to ask customer o Question asked in order/Inputs are in order/Standard format o Fixed options of drop down menus can make validation easier/fewer errors on input o Ensure on inputs are forgotten o Options can change according to previous inputs

Command line interface Page 14 of 17

9691/01 and 9691/02 Computing Requires user to type command words Which stand for instructions to the operating system Requires user to know (restricted se of) commands Allows user full use of system Requires qwerty keyboard Include many instructions in one line Rigid grammar

Natural language Allows user to use own language Looks for occurrence of words in its dictionary Many errors/non context based conversational

Menu based interface Menu to point/choose Menu lists restricted options Restricts user Uses function keys or pointer Further choices In tree fashion Reason to use o Requires no specialist knowledge/user friendly interface o Can make allowances for poor user presentation using computer o Requires no special hardware

Sequential file access Describe o Records stored one after the other o In order of key Reasons for using o Naturally stored in logical order o Allows for batch processing of statements/matched easily with sorted TF o So that there are no duplications missed customers/every customer needs to be accessed Disadvantage o When large number of records in file o Make access to an individual record too time consuming o For the satisfaction of the customer/who expects an immediate response

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9691/01 and 9691/02 Computing Indexed sequential file access Reasons for using o It allows both sequential and direct access to the data o If allows fast access to data while maintaining sequential nature

Random file access (Hash) Reasons for using o It gives direct access to data/faster access to data o Immediate access is allowed while statements may be produced serially Dealing with clash o Read addresses serially from hashed addressUntil a space appears o Use a bucket read duplicates serially in bucket until space is found o Treat original as head of a linked list follow list to null value and add new value to end of list

Serial file access Reasons for using o No logical order to input of records

Magnetic stripes Usage o On bank cards o To store details of account o Read by card reader in order to access details

MICR OCR OMR Standard form of data entry Page 16 of 17 Shape of character is scanned in optically and then compared with a bank of shapes stored in memory sensible use e.g. turnaround documents/produce editable documents Data printed using a special ink which is magnetised before the characters are read Input device can recognise characters by their magnetic(signature) A sensible use e.g. data on bank cheques

9691/01 and 9691/02 Computing Allows background information to be printed on initially Input is in binary form/either a mark or no mark Application requires high standard of reliability/Removes human error High rate of data entry (because of time sensitivity of data) E.g. o Multi choice exam papers/ registers in schools/lottery ticket ordering

Record A collection of pieces of information that refer to a single entity/all records must contain the same types of information/a row of information in a table

Field A field/attribute is a single item of information/which will appear in allt he records/headed column in a table

Key field Field that uniquely/identifies a record

Size of data Surname string Date of birth date Number Integer, real Yes/No Boolean NB: o divided by 1024 o add 10% 1030 6/8 2/4 1

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