Introduction to Telecom

& Handbook for RF:

Version 1.0

Version : 1.0 First Edition Created By : Satyaki Chakrabarty

Table Of Contents :
1. INTRODUCTION TO GSM 1.1. Introduction To Mobile Telephony 1.1.1. ME Types & Classes 1.1.2. Sim Contains 1.1.3. BSS Functionalities 1.1.4. Cellular Coverage GSM Abbreviations

1.2.

INTRODUCTION TO MOBILE TELEPHONY:

European Telecommunications Standard Institute (ETSI) The Wireline Telephony allow us to reach a particular place but Wireless Telephony allow us to reach the particular person. GSM(Global System For Mobile Communication) and its sibling DCS1800 was introduced in late 1980s and was a contribution to of the Europeans to the mobile telephony. All the standardizations of this mobile telephony were governed by ETSI.The cellular concept was introduced by Bell Labs , and was studied in various places in world during 70s. ETSI (European Telecommunications Standard Institute) was founded by the former CEPT (Confrence Europene des Postes et Tlcommunications). ETSI is financed by the European Union (EU) and contributions of its members. It is a co-operation between all the major telecommunication suppliers and operator companies. ETSIs task is to elaborate unified standards for telecommunications equipment in Europe. Presently standards issued by ETSI include: Cellular: GSM 900 (Global System for Mobile Communications), GSM 1800, GSM 1900, GPRS (Generalized Packet Radio Services), UMTS (Universal Mobile Telecommunication System)

Cordless Telephony: DECT (Digital European Cordless Telephone) Paging: ERMES (European Radio Messaging System) Trunked Radio: TETRA (Trans-European Trunked Radio System)

ETSI is located in the Sophia Antipolis technology park (French Silicon Valley) near Nice in Southern France. Digital Technologies: Second generation cellular systems on a fully digital basis are the systems belonging to the GSM family. GSM900 and its twin sister GSM1800 (formerly DCS1800) are in worldwide use in over 100 countries on all continents now. In the USA a GSM derivative (GSM1900) is being promoted as a competitor to US-based CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access) systems. GSM1900 is very similar to GSM900/1800, but uses a different voice coding system. This is more a political issue rather than a technical issue.

Why Digital? During transmission through the entire communication chain signals become distorted by noise, non-linearity in amplifiers, interference from other transmitters, etc. Analogue signals may take any given waveform. Therefore distortions are undetectable since any signal form is valid. Digital signals have two distinct states, 1 and 0. At any intermediate stage, a digital signal can be regenerated to its ideal state. Error correction algorithms can be applied to detect transmission errors (bit errors). Such, a digital signal can be carried clean all the way from source to destination and be converted to an audible (analogue) signal only at the receiving users ear. As opposed to analogue, digital signals can be: ideally and error-free regenerated

packaged compressed stored reproduced identically easily de-encrypted and encrypted

Multiple Access Techniques : In order for several radio links to be in progress simultaneously in the same geographical area without mutual interference, arrangements have to be made to avoid system degradation due to mutual interference. This is known as multiple access to a common transmission medium. Several multiple access techniques exist:

Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA) Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) Space Division Multiple Access (SDMA)

Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA) FDMA systems allocate one frequency band continuously (in time) to one specific user, who is the only one transmitting and receiving on this frequencies during his time of transaction. Each radio resource (radio channel) is identified with the carrier frequency and relative bandwidth. In the GSM 900-case the carrier frequencies are in the 900 MHz band and the single channel bandwidth available for one user is 200 kHz. Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) TDMA systems operate with time slots, short periods of time. Each user is assigned to a specific timeslot for his transaction. Within a specific radio channel (frequency channel) several users are served. They share the channel sequentially in time. The time slots are of very short duration, the user, however, perceives a continuous speech stream due to appropriate compression and expansion techniques at transmitter and receiver. TDMA is the choice mainly in digital systems. From a bandwidth perspective, FDMA and TDMA provide the same spectral efficiency (measured in kHz per user). Error! Reference source not found. illustrates the TDMA principle. Time division multiple access principle :

T = Allocated time

Slot for user 1 Slot for user 2

Slot for user 8 Slot for user 7

Slot for user 3 Slot for user 4

Slot for user 6 Slot for user 5

Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) CDMA follows the idea of many users using one single physical radio channel (spread spectrum approach). Coding each stream with orthogonal coding sequences separates user data streams. Orthogonality thereby provides (ideally) a cross-correlation of zero; i.e. each stream can be extracted error-free by correlation.

Multiplying each user data bit with a spreading sequence increases the used bandwidth considerably (spread spectrum). Since the signals of all users are by nature then co-channel interferers to any other users signals, resistance against interference needs to be provided by the achievable coding gain of the spreading sequence. More coding gain can be achieved by longer sequences, which in turn increases the bandwidth used. Sets of orthogonal (cross-correlation = 0!) and long sequences are difficult to find. A cross-correlation other than zero means that the signal cannot be extracted uninfluenced by other signals, i.e. bit errors remain. Space Division Multiple Access (SDMA) SDMA follows the idea of separating users by their location in space (or in angle). By transmitting and receiving signals only into the direction where the user/basestation signals are coming from, interference to other users is reduced considerably. SDMA requires "smart"/adaptive antennas, which in turn require a certain physical space. Therefore smart antennas are especially to be deployed at the base station. SDMA is a technique which become popular recently, but it still will take some time to be deployed in commercial systems.

Channel Types In mobile communications different types of physical radio channels can be distinguished (see Error! Reference source not found.): Simplex channel: The generic channel type. A specific radio frequency is allocated to each party (FDMA). The channel is permanently allocated to the user. Usage: e.g. amateur radio, walkie-talkie FDMA/TDD: (TDD Time Division Duplex) The same radio channel is used alternatingly for direction A-to-B, then Bto-A, etc. Usage: e.g. cordless phones (half-duplex channel) TDMA/TDD: Timeslots on same radio channel are used for both uplink and downlink direction. Usage: e.g. DECT FDMA/ TDMA: A timeslot on a radio channel is allocated to a specific user. Different users are on the same frequency channel and another timeslot or on another frequency channel and another timeslot. There exist several frequency channels in parallel. Uplink and downlink directions operate on different radio frequencies (FDD Frequency Division Duplex). Usage: e.g. GSM CDMA/FDMA: Users on the same frequency channel are separated by different codes. There exist several frequency channels in parallel. Uplink and downlink directions operate on different radio frequencies (FDD). Usage: e.g. UMTS

Overview of GSM Subsystems :

Key Pointers : GSM is based on TDMA access technology. GSM uses 200 KHz per channel for traffic in given spectrum There are 8 time slots in one TDMA frame. Each TS is 16 Kbps giving 128 Kbps in on TDMA frame Full Rate Vocoders in GSM is 13 Kbps Modulation Technique used in GMSK for voice. Modulation Technique used in 8 PSK and GMSK for data. One radio module is called a eDRX (TRX, TRU, eDRX) Mobile Station: Mobile Equipment (ME) Subscriber Identity Module (SIM) ME Types & Classes: Mobile equipment or ME contains IMEI (International Mobile Equipment Identity) number, and the SIM contains IMSI no. (International Mobile Subscriber Identity) . ME are of three types 1. Vehicle Mounted 2. Portable Mobile Unit 3. Hand-portable Type Classmark Mobiles have distinct features like max transmission power and services they support which are identified by its classmark. This classmark is sent by the ME in its initial message. The classmark contains 1. Revision Level identifies phase of GSM specifications the mobile complies with. 2. RF Power capabilities Max power the MS is able to transmit. This information is held in mobile power class number.

3. Ciphering Algorithm Indicates ciphering algorithm implemented in MS e.g. (A5) used in GSM phase 1 & (A5/0 A5/7) used in GSM phase 2. 4. Frequency Capability Frequency bands the MS can receive and transmit on. 5. Short message capability SIM Contains IMSI International Mobile Subscriber Identity TMSI Temporary Mobile Subscriber Identity which is periodically changed by system management to protect the subscriber from being identified by someone attempting to monitor the radio interface. LAI Location Area Identifier Ki Subscriber Authentication Key used to authenticate SIM. MSISDN Mobile Station International Services Digital Network or telephone number of subscriber which comprises of Country Code , Network Code , Subscriber Number.

BSS : ( Base Station System) It provides link between MS and MSC. It communicates with MS & MSC via 2 Mbps link over air interface major comp. are: 1. BTS (Base Transreciever Station) This is part of the GSM network which communicates with MS 2. BSC (Base Station Controller),For controlling BTS. 3. XCDR (Transcoder) Used to compact signals from MS so that they are sent efficiently over terrestrial interfaces. BSS Functionality : 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. Terrestrial Channel Management (BSC) Channel Allocation (BSC) Radio Channel Management (BSC) Channel Configuration Management (BSC) Handover Control (BSC / BTS) Frequency Hopping (BSC / BTS) Traffic Channel Management (BSC / BTS) Control Channel Management (BSC / BTS) Encryption (BSC / BTS) Paging (BSC / BTS) Power Control (BSC / BTS) Channel Coding / Decoding (BTS) Timing Advance (BTS) Idle Channel Observation (BTS) Measurement Reporting

BSC: (Base Station Controller) It controls BSS , it incorporates digital switching matrix which is used to connect the radio channels on the air interface with terrestrial circuit from MSC. Switching matrix allows BSC to perform handovers between radio channels on BTS, under its control without involving MSC.BTS provides air interface connections with MS and also has limited amount of control functionality which reduces amount of traffic between BTS and BSC.

Cellular Coverage: Power of radio waves decrease with inverse of the squared distance (d-2) in space but in urban environment the received power typically varies by (d-4).A second problem is spectrum scarcity which is circumvented by the reuse of radio resources hence comes the term of Frequency Reuse. Frequencies used in a given cell are reused a few cells away , at a distance sufficient so that the unavoidable interference created by the close use of the same spectrum has fallen to an acceptable level, which depends in particular on the transmission method. Technical tricks to improve spectral efficiency were conceived during the system design and have been introduced by GSM . They increase the complexity , but this is balanced by the economical advantages of a better efficiency. The major points are as follows..

ABBREVIATIONS : BCH (Broadcast Channel) Downlink transport channel used to broadcast System Specific and Cell Specific information . BCCH (Broadcast Control Channel) Channel from BTS to MS used for transmission of messages to all MS located in BTS area. BCCH contains the detailed Network and cell specific informations such as : 1. Frequency used by cell and its Neighbouring cells. 2. Frequency HSN 3. Paging Groups 4. LAI 5. Max O/P power allowed in the cell. TCH (Traffic Channel) Logical Radio Channel assigned to BTS and primarily intended for conversation. CCCH (Common Control Channel) It is responsible for transferring data between all mobile and BTS. It is necessary for implementation of call origination and call paging function it consists of: a) RACH(Random Access Control Channel) which in uplink used for gaining access to the system while initiating a call or responding to a page. b) PCH(Paging Channel) and AGCH(Access Grant Control Channel) operates in the downlink direction to the mobile it is the answer to the RACH. PCH is used to page messages from a system. ACCH(Associated Control Channel) This is point to point bi-directional control channel , that is associated with the traffic channel TCH and that supports both signaling and packet data. GOS(Grade Of Service) Measure of the service given by an exchange or group of circuits during busy hour(GOS is expressed as function of offered calls likely to fail at the first attempt owing to limitations of equipments.

AB(Access Burst) It is the signal sent by the mobile station to the base trans receiver station so that the base transreciever station can derive the timing advance from the delay of its arrival. AC(Access Channel) Channel marked with a special identification signal and used to gain access to the traffic channel when, for example the mobile station initiates call. AGCH(Access Grant Channel) Downlink and point to point common control channel {CCH-(point to multipoint bidirectional control channel primarily intended to carry signaling information necessary for access management functions, that is allocation of dedicated channels)} reserved for assignment messages. In other words Network assigns a signaling channel (SDCCH) to the MS . This assignment is performed on AGCH. BCC(Base Transreceiver Station Color Code) Base transreciever color code are defined from 0-7 BN(Bit Number) BSIC(Base Transceiver Station Identity Code) Block of code consisting of Network color code (NCC) and Base station color code(BCC) . It is a property which is used the BCCH and the BSIC allocation to particular sector as the BSIC and the BCCH of two neighbours are never kept the same to avoid confusion during the handovers. Eg: If NCC = 7 and BCC=2 BSIC = 72 BTS(Base Transceiver Station) It is the entire base trans receiver station site which includes all processors units such as the Operation and Maintenance Unit (OMU) , Frame Unit (FU) and Carrier Unit (CU). CA(Cell Allocation) DCCH(Dedicated Control Channels) The dedicated control channels are of various types 1. SDCCH (Stand Alone Dedicated Control Channel) Logical Channel on Radio Interface Used for sending short messages & during connection set up used for identification & authentication procedures for starting and ciphering. 2. SACCH(Slow Associated Control Channel) It is a associated control channel of which one frame is available for control signaling in the direction that the associated channel is carrying traffic. It is transmitted in both uplink and downlink direction. SACCH is associated with each SDCCH and with TCH. During uplink through this channel MS sends the average measurement on its own BTS and Neighboring BTSs. During downlink MS receives information regarding information concerning , transmit power to use and instructions on timing advance. 3. CBCH(Cell Broadcast Channel) CBCH is used in downlink only and is used to carry Short Message Service Cell Broadcast(SMSCB) and uses the same physical channel as the SDCCH. In other words its a logical channel on the radio interface , which is used for transferring broadcast messages to the mobile station. 4. FACCH(Fast Associated Control Channel) While call is in progress and HO is required FACCH works in stealing mode meaning that 20ms segment of speech is exchanged for signaling information necessary for HO. This is the associated control channel that is available for control signaling when the uplink or downlink of the assigned channel is not in use for traffic. FN(Frame Number) It is the identifier for the position of a particular TDMA time frame within a hyperframe. FHP(Frame Handling Protocol) It is user plane protocol for information transmitted or received on dedicated transmission channel between the base station (Node B) and combining or splitting equipment in the radio network controller (RNC).

FP(Frame Protocol) Protocol which is used to transport user data frames between the serving radio network controller(SRNC) and the base transreciever station(BTS) over the lub and lur interfaces frame protocols, system level design white paper. FB(Frequency Correction Burst) FCCH(Frequency Correction Channel) This is a downlink channel . From BTS end, BTS transmits a carrier frequency (pure sine wave of 67.7 Khz). This solves two purpose 1. Make sure that this is BCCH carrier 2. To allow the MS to synchronize to the frequency From MS end after MS is switched on it scans for this channel, since it has no information of which frequency to use.FCCH carrier enables a mobile to tune its frequency to that being broadcast by the BTS. HSN(Hopping Sequence Number) MA(Mobile Allocation) MAI(Mobile Allocation Index) MAIO(Mobile Allocation Index Offset) NB(Normal Burst) PCH (Paging Channel) Through this channel the BTS broadcasts the PLMN (Public Land Mobile Network) RACH (Random Access Channel) It is a uplink channel that is used to carry control information from a mobile station and that may also carry short user packets. When mobile is paged , it replies on RACH requesting a signaling channel. RACH can also be used if the MS wants to make a contact the NW/ Originating calls. RFCH (Radio Frequency Channel) It is the channel that represents a specified portion of the RF spectrum with a defined bandwidth and a carrier frequency and is capable of carrying information over the radio interface. RFN(Reduced Frame Number) SB(Synchronisation Burst) SCN(Sub-channel Number) SCH(Synchronisation Channel) From the BTS end , BTS transmits TDMA frame number + Base station identity code (BSIC = NCC + BCC). From the MS end , MS decodes the BSIC if the chosen BTS is GSM Base station within a cell. SMSCB(Short Message Service Cell Broadcast) TDMA(Time Division Multiple Access) TN(Timeslot Number) Terminology: BSS Base Station System MSC Mobile services Switching Center BSC Base Station Controller BTS Base Transceiver Station

10

OSS Operation and Support System RADIO NETWORK DIMENSIONING, OVERVIEW BS Base Station MS Mobile Station BER Bit Error Rate HCS Hierarchical Cell Structures LA Location Area FH Frequency Hopping DTX Discontinuous Transmission STS Statistics and Traffic measurement Sub-system BCCH Broadcast Control Channel SDCCH Stand-alone dedicated control channel TCH Traffic Channel GOS Grade Of Service MRP Multiple Re-use Pattern RF Radio Frequency ERP Effective Radiated Power VSWR Voltage Standing Wave Ratio LNA Low Noise Amplifier

TDMA FRAME STRUCTURE : Basic Concepts : Every TRX in a cell gets one particular frequency during the frequency planning which is further divided in 8 parts in time domain with a time duration of 15/26ms or 0.577ms known as a time slot which is having the same frequency. These 8 timeslots combine to form a TDMA frame of duration 4.61ms and which is transmitted over the air interface to the MS. Burst Concept : Physical concept of a timeslot is called Burst there are 5 types of bursts each having 15/26 ms duration and 156.25 bits. Frame : One frame is equivalent to 8 time slot i.e 8 * 15/26 = 4.61 ms. Multiframe : There are two types of multiframes. 26 TDMA frame multiframe : Used to carry TCH , SACCH and FACCH Duration = 26 * 8 * 15/26 = 120 ms 51 TDMA frame multiframe : Used to carry BCCH , CCCH , SDCCH and SACCH Duration = 51 * 8 * 15/26 = 235.38 ms Superframe : 51 * 26 Multiframes , so duration is 51* 26 * 8 * 15/26 = 6 sec 120 ms. Hyperframe : In GSM system every TDMA frame is assigned a fixed number which repeats itself after a time period of 3 hours 28 minutes 53 seconds 760 ms . This time period is referred to as Hyperframe.

11

BURST TYPES : Normal Burst : This burst is used to carry information on 1) Traffic channel, 2) SDCCH channel, 3)Broadcast Control Channel, 4) Paging Channel, 5) Access Grant Channel 6) SACCH & FACCH Channel.

1 Time slot = 156.25 bits durations (15/26 = 0.577 ms ) TB Encrypted bits 3 57 F Training Sequence 26 F Encrypted bits TB 57 3 GP 8.25

F : One Stealing Bit :=0 Indicates 57bit packet contains user data or speech :=1 Indicates burst stolen for FACCH Signalling RxQual derived from the 26 bit midable from the TDMA frame

Frequency Burst : Here all the 148 bits (142+6) are coded with zero. The O/P of the GMSk modulator is a fixed frequency signal exactly 67.7 KHz above the BCCH Carrier frequency. Thus the MS on receiving this fixed frequency signal fine tunes to the BCCH frequency and waits for the sync. Burst to arrive after 1 TDMA frame = 0.577 * 8 = 4.61ms
1 Time slot = 156.25 bits durations (15/26 = 0.577 ms ) TB 3 ALL ZERO 142 BITS TB 3 GP 8.25

12

Synchronization Burst : This burst is used for time synchronization of the MS 39 Bits * 2 = 78 Bits are decoded to arrive25-SCH control bits and that contains the information of the NCC, BCC and TDMA FN. 64 Bits long training sequence are identical for all BTS.
1 Time slot = 156.25 bits durations (15/26 = 0.577 ms ) TB 3 SCH DATA 39 Bits Extended Training Sequence 64 Bits SCH DATA 39 Bits TB 3 GP 8.25

Access Burst : This burst is only used for initial access by the MS to the BTS for two cases For connection setup when idle state where a CHAN_REQ message is sent using the access burst. And for HO when MS sends HND_ACC message. 36 Bits contain : BSIC+CHAN_REQ or HND_ACC ; 41 Bits contain : Fixed bit sequence allow BTS to recognize it is Access Burst ; 86.25 Bits GP : Long GP enables BTS to get propagation delay information.
1 Time slot = 156.25 bits durations (15/26 = 0.577 ms ) TB 8 SCH Sequence 41 Bits RACH Data 36 Bits TB 3 Guard Band 68.25 Bits

Dummy Burst : To enable the BCCH frequency to be transmitted with a constant power level, dummy bursts are inserted. This burst is transmitted on CHGR=0 when no other type of burst is to be sent. Thus it makes possible for MS to perform the power measurement on the BTS in order to determine which BTS to use for initial access or which to use for HO. CCCH is replaced by the dummy page, when there is no paging message to transmit. Here a 58 Bits coded with pseudo random bit sequence to prevent confusion with frequency correction burst.
1 Time slot = 156.25 bits durations (15/26 = 0.577 ms ) TB 3 Mixed Bits 58 Training Sequence 26 Mixed Bits 58 TB Guard Band 3 8.25

CALL TO AN MS: The MSC/VLR(virtual location register) knows which LA(location area) the MS is located in . A paging message is sent to the BSCs controlling the LA. The BSC distributes the paging message to the BTS in the desired LA. The BTS transmits the message over the air interface using PCH. When MS detects a PCH identifying itself, it sends a request for a signaling channel using RACH. The BSC uses AGCH to inform the MS of the signaling channel (SDCCH and SACCH) to use. SDCCH and SACCH are used for call set up. A TCH is allocated and the SDCCH is released. The MS and the BTS switch to the identified TCH frequency and time slot. The MS rings. If the subscriber answers the connection is established. During the call, the radio connection is maintained by information sent and received by the MS using SACCH. CHANNEL CONCEPTS :

13

As can be seen from the diagram above the logical channels are broadly classified into two parts: Control Channels Traffic Channels CONTROL CHANNELS : Control channels are further divided divided into three categories. 1) BROADCAST CHANNELS (BCH): They are further categorized in three different groups. SCH(Synchronization Channel) : It is a downlink channel or in other words a synchronization burst through which the BTS transmits a TDMA frame number + Base Station Identity Code (BSIC = NCC + BCC). The MS decodes the BSIC if the chosen BTS is GSM base station within a cell. FCCH(Frequency correction Channel) : This is a downlink channel through which the BTS transmits a carrier frequency (pure sine wave of 67.7 Khz) to make sure that 1) This is a BCCH carrier 2) And to allow the MS to synchronize to the frequency of the Service Provider. After switch on MS scan for this channel, since it has no information to which frequency to use. FCCH carrier enables a mobile to tune its frequency to that being broadcast by the BTS. BCCH(Broadcast ControlChannel) : This is a downlink channel. The BCCH contains the detailed Network and cell specific information such as 1) Frequency used by cell and its neighboring cells 2) Frequency HSN 3) Paging Groups 4) LAI 5) Max O/P Power allowed in the cell 6) CBCH Description 7) DTX Permitted 8) Cell Identity.

2) COMMON CONTROL CHANNELS (CCCH) : Also divided further in three categories.

14

PCH(Paging Channel) : It is a downlink channel where the BTS broadcasts the paging message to indicate the incoming calls or incoming SMS. Paging message also includes the MSs identity number IMSI/TMSI. The MS listens to the PCH. If it identifies its own mobile subscriber identity number on the PCH, it will respond. RACH(Random Access channel) : It is transmitted in uplink only. When the mobile is paged , it replies on RACH requesting a signaling channel. RACH can also be used if the MS wants to make a contact with the NW originating calls. AGCH(Access Grant channel) : It is the answer to the RACH. NW assigns a signaling channel (SDCCH) to the MS. This assignment is performed on the AGCH.

3) DEDICATED CONTROL CHANNELS (DCCH) : Again divided into three categories. SDCCH(Stand Alone Dedicated Control Channel) : It is a bidirectional channel which is used for system signaling, call set up, Authentication, Location Update, Assignment of traffic channels and Transmission of short messages. Usage Of SDCCH : 1) Registration : Periodic location updates, IMSI Attach/Detach 2) Call setup : Immediate assignment - > Assignment. 3) SMS point-to-point : SMS messages to/from MS in idle mode. 4) Fax setup 5) Optional : USSD(Unstructured supplementary service data) data transfer. MS <-> Network. Similar to SMS. Controlled by the MSC. Possible Configurations : SDCCH/8 : 8 Sub channels for signaling are mapped on 1 TS, this results 1 less TCH for the cell.(SD separate BCCH seperate) SDCCH/4 (Combining BCCH and SDCCH) :4 Sub channels for signaling are mapped on BCCH TS. As a result Paging capacity on BCCH is reduced by 1/3.(SD + BCCH) CBCH : If CBCH is active 1 sub channel of SDCCH is replaced by 1 CBCH channel. Limitations : SDCCH/8 in a cell = Number of TRXs
CONFIGURATIONS HYD007A 1 TRX SDCCH TCH 4 7 3 7 8 6 7 6 12 6 11 6 X X X X HYD006A 2 TRX SDCCH TCH 4 15 3 15 8 14 7 14 12 14 11 14 20 13 19 13

SDCCH/4 SDCCH/4+CBCH SDCCH/8 SDCCH/8+CBCH SDCCH/4+SDCCH/8 SDCCH/4+SDCCH/8+CBCH SDCCH/4+SDCCH/8+SDCCH/8 SDCCH/4+SDCCH/8+SDCCH/8+CBCH

SDCCH Congestion : All SDCCH in a cell are at the same time busy for a period of time which leads to rejection of any new MS. Reasons for SDCCH congestion : Hanging SDCCH: are SDCCH that are hanging busy and unusable for a long time (many minutes or indefinite).Hanging SDCCH are generally caused by Software faults. Heavily used SDCCH: SDCCH seen as continuously busy even though they are used by different MS and thus carries traffic. It may cause due to : Extreme end-user behaviors: Sport event ending, festivals or celebrations.

>

15

>

Increased mean hold time of the SDCCH: Mean hold time increase from 2 to 10 seconds can give SDCCH congestion. Increased mean hold time of SDCCH can be caused by: Too low signal strength at access to the system Due to LSS MS will be lost communication with the system, This will lead to timeout in the BSC (RLINKT ), and thus the SDCCH is used until timeout. Increase ACCMIN. Congestion of TCH/TRA/RALT Will increase CP execution time before rejecting Imm Ass. Minor increase in mean hold time expected. C7 problems to MSC (or TRC) In case of C7 signaling problems (SCCP) towards MSC (and/or TRC) can lead to timeout on SCCP connection setup. This will lead to more than 2 minutes hold time for SDCCH. Handover on SDCCH Handover on SDCCH will in itself increase mean hold time on SDCCH. However minor increase is expected. Congestion on Air-interface Congestion on Air-interface leads to delay in communication to the MS. Can give timeout in BSC during Imm Ass.Increases SDCCH mean hold time with more than 2 seconds. Congestion on Abis (LAPD link) Congestion on Abis leads to delay in communication with BTS and MS. Can give timeout in BSC during channel activation (TCHACTIVE). Increase SDCCH mean hold time with more than 5 seconds.. Congestion on A-interface Congestion on the A-interface will lead to increased mean hold time on SDCCH. Increase is unknown. High load in MSC/VLR or HLR High load in MSC/VLR and/or HLR will lead to increased mean hold time on SDCCH. Increase is unknown

SDCCH Holding times : Normal Location Updating = 3.5 Sec Periodic Registration = 3.5 Sec IMSI Attach = 3.5 Sec IMSI Detach = 2.9 Sec (IMSI detach Indication message sent to NW, no authentication is performed (which normally takes 0.6Sec) & no ack is sent to MS.) Call Setup = 2.7 Sec (MOC) = 2.9 Sec (MTC) Short Message Service(SMS) = 6.2 Sec (Vary depending the length of SMS) Fax Transmission = 2.7 Sec (MOC) = 2.9 Sec (MTC) False Access = 1.8 Sec (when Channel req is recd by system ,as SDCCH is allocated by sending Imm Ass message, and the system waits a certain time before performing disconnection.) How to detect SDCCH congestion in the BSC : There is no good way to detect SDCCH congestion in real time in the BSC! A number of symptoms to look for: 1) Increased CP Load. 2) Decreased usage of TRA devices. 3) Location Updates fails => Mobile terminating calls does not reach the subscriber. 4) Subscriber complaints. Can not access the system. 5) STS counters . Object type: CLSDCCH and CLSDCCHO.

16

6)

Seizure Supervision of LCHs (but only for Hanging SDCCHs!)

Preventive actions to avoid SDCCH congestion : 1) Avoid combined BCCH in cells with many SDCCHs 2) Use the optional feature Adaptive Configuration of SDCCHs (ACLC) 3) Use USSD (Unstructured Supplementary Service data) with care, can cause long meanhold time on SDCCH. 4) Avoid Handover on SDCCH 5) Proper Dimensioning of the TCHs and TRA devices in the BSC. 6) Use recommended values for Periodic Location Updates 7)Avoid unnecessary Periodic Location Updates : BSC: T3212 (RLSBC) = 40 (4 hours) MSC: BTDM (MGIDI) = 240 (4 hours) MSC: GTDM (MGIDI) = 6 (6 minutes) 8)Use Immediate Assignment on TCH. 9)Increases the no of SDCCH in a Cell where SDCCH load is high

SACCH(Slow Associated Control Channels) : It is transmitted in both uplink and downlink directions.It is associated with each SDCCH and TCH. During the uplink the MS sends the averaged measurement on its own BTS and neighboring BTSs through this channel and during the downlink the MS receives the information regarding the transmit power to use and instructions on timing advance through this channel. FACCH(Fast Associated Control Channel) : While call is in progress and HO is required FACCH is used .It works in stealing mode meaning that one 20ms segment of speech is exchanged for signaling information necessary for HO. TRAFFIC CHANNELS :

Traffic channels are Bi directional logical channels that transfer the user speech or data. Full Rate Traffic Channel (TCH/F) : This channel carries information at a gross rate at 13Kbps *Now it is 22.8 Kbps with latest R9.1 Half Rate Traffic Channel (TCH/H) : This channel carries information at a gross rate of 6.5Kbps. Enhanced Full Rate : The speech coding in EFR is still done at 13Kbps, but the coding mechanism is different that is used for normal FR. EFR gives better speech quality at the same bit rate than normal FR.

Channel Combinations : Different logical channel types mentioned are grouped into channel combinations.four most common combinations are Full rate traffic channel combination TCH8/FACCH + SACCH Broadcast channel combination BCCH + CCCH Dedicated channel combination BCCH + CCCH + SDCCH4 + SACCH4 Half rate channel combination will be similar to Full Rate Traffic Combination. Half Rate Traffic channel combination TCH16/FACCH + SACCH

Channel Combination & Timeslots :

17

Some channel combination may be sent on any timeslot, but others must be sent on specific timeslots: Traffic Any Timeslot Broadcast 0,2,4,6 (0 must be used first) Dedicated Any timeslot Combined 0 only If broadcast is assigned to timeslots 2,4 and 6 then FCCH and SCH will be replaced with dummy bursts since these control channels may only occur on timeslot 0

18

51-frame Control Channel Multiframe (BCCH/CCCH) During uplink (MS - BSS) all timeslot 0 are allocated to RACH as it is the only control channel in the BCCH/CCCH group working in uplink. It is shown in the diagram below

19

51 frame Control Channel Multiframe DCCH/8(SDCCH & SACCH)

Mobile Activity & Basic Call Sequence : MS only transmits or receives its own physical channel (normally containing TCH & SACCH) for 1/8 of the time, it uses remaining time to monitor the BCCH of adjacent target cells. It completes the process every 480 ms, or four 26-TCH multiframes. The message that it sends to the BSS (SACCH uplink) contains the receive signal strength indication (RSSI) of the adjacent cells, plus that of the link to the BSS itself, plus an indication of the quality of the

20

current connection. Quality measurement is somewhat similar to bit error rate test. Just as the mobile completes one series of measurements, it completes sending the previous series to the BSS and starts to send the latest series NETWORK QUALITY PARAMETERS : 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. TCH Drop Rate % (W-2) TCH Congestion Rate % ( W-1) Call Success Rate % (F-2) SDCCH Drop Rate % (W-6) SDCCH Congestion Rate % (W-6) Call Setup Success Rate % (W-6 ) Handover Failure Rate % (M-1)

RF Planning Introduction :
INTRODUCTION : The Networks are basically of two types Fresh Rollout Expansion Fresh Rollout : Here the operator is not having any trace of its network previously and thus having no existing customers. This type of network is designed primarily for coverage over the targeted geographical area and for the estimated customer split over that area.. Expansion : In this type of network the operator is already having a subscriber base in that area and with a increasing trend .This type of network is designed primarily for capacity and deep in - building coverage or filling up coverage holes. This network can also be for extending the previously targeted geographical area as per the growth of the province and customer requirements. There are certain factors to be taken in consideration before a network has to be planned like the Geographical area to be covered , Subscribers to be targeted , GOS e.t.c. Concept Of Erlang : In one line If one time slot is kept busy for one hour that amounts to one Erlang of traffic. Now for any Fresh rollout or Expansion it is first considered that what is the subscriber count to be targeted and then taking an average of the MoU time (Mobile usage time) of a subscriber and also the total traffic load on the site it is decided that at how many milliearlangs the network needs to be designed. But the question arises of how to calculate the present network capacity in terms of MoU or erlang.That can again be stated with the help of an example. Eg.1. Lets say that the total no of subscribers in a city is 2574560(any random figure) and the total no of MoU(minutes of usage) for a days busy hour be 2,00,000,00 min. i.e 2,00,000,0 / 60 = 33333.333 Erl = 33333333 mErl Now the total no of minutes of usage per subscriber will be 3,33,333,33 / 2574560 = 12.974 mErl For Expanding the Network by 20% with a blocking of 2 % we will increase the MoU by 22% that will be a total of 33333333 + 20/100 (33333333) = 39999999.6 i.e with a new erlang capacity of 39999999.6 / 2574560 = 15.536 mErl for the same subscriber base. Eg.2. For a network targeting a subscriber count of 300,000 at 40mErl what should be the total no of sites with desired configuration as per morphology. Sol We first calculate the total no of earlangs that will be generated Number Of Subscribers * Capacity at which Network has to be designed 30000 * 40/1000 = 12000 Erl Depending on the type of morphology like Dense Urban , Urban , Suburban , Rural e.t.c it is decided that what type of SDCCH + BCCH combination should be used like for example 6) SD/4 = SDCCH + BCCH combined on one channel (for rural areas)

21

7) 8)

SD/8 = BCCH & SDCCH on separate time slots.(for urban areas) SD/4 + SD/8 = hybrid.(for dense urban areas)

Taking a 444 site for dense urban area the total no of time slots available for speech per sector if we take SD/8 along with two time slots for GPRS will be 32 4 = 28 , so 28 * 3 = 84 i.e time slots available for speech for one site. With a GOS of 2% we can see from the table that the total Erlang capacity that can be server from the site is 72.53 Erl which is then divided with the percentage of total geographical area and considering the total area covered by one site will give us the total no of sites to be plugged in that area.
Design a network at 40mErl for a subscriber database of 2,40,000 more over the existing database of 3,60,000 at 35 mErl with a bloking of 2%. Calculate their previous MoU and the present MoU. Also calculate the no of sites required for 222, 333, 444, 666 configuration for a geographical area with a ratio of 2:3:7:15 for clutter type DU : U :SU : RURAL respectively.

For a subscriber database of 360000 previously

22

23

IDLE MODE OPERATION : Idle Mode Control : When mobile is in idle mode it needs some information about the network in order to be capable of knowing right frequencies and finding right cells. This information is actually related to Radio Resource Management and to mobility management, because information contains frequencies, IDs of cells, location area IDs and cell access parameters. Access/Mobility Management : The parameter not allowed access classes (09, 1115) tells which mobile user classes can not use the particular cell. Dividing the subscriber database into different access control classes gives the operator some control over the existing load and allows having priority users. The PLMN permitted (07) parameter (broadcast on the BCCH) is not meant to define that whether the MS can use the network or not. It is used by the mobile to report measurements only of that PLMN. Therefore this parameter is used after the network selection is done. The BSIC (Base Station Identity Code) is broadcasted on the SCH, so when the mobile pre-synchronises it knows if BTS belongs to the right PLMN or not (BSIC is screened by PLMN permitted). PLMN Selection : When the mobile is switched on, it tries to locate a network if the mobile is in home country, it naturally tries to find the home network, and if there is coverage, the mobile is clamped on that. If there is no coverage the other option is to clamp on to the network of other competitive operators, which is called national roaming. Usually it is not possible as operators are in hard competition with each other. So the only possibility to find a network in home country is to find a home network. During international roaming the mobile can select any operator giving GSM services in the foreign country with which the operator of the home network has a roaming agreement. Here the home operator makes a list of preferred operators in different countries, or the mobile just selects a the network with the best field strength, home operator can also give a list of forbidden networks. PLMN selection criteria mentioned are chosen by operator and they cannot be affected with the parameters. The parameters PLMN permitted (07), doesnt effect the PLMN selection, it is only used for measurement reporting.

24

IDs and ID codes : Mobile also needs information about cell identities (cell - ID) and more which are used for location updates e.g. Mobile Network Code , MNC (099), Mobile Country Code, MCC (0999) and Location Area Code, LAC (065535) describing a location area as shown
L o c a tio n A r e a C o d e M C C = C o u n tr y e .g F in la n d M N C = O p e r a to r
L A C 1 = H e ls in k i LAC 2

LAC 3

LAC 4

BSC BTS
n

BTS BTS
1 2

There are other information needed to separate co channels used in different Base Stations. Parameters like Base Station Identity Code including Network Color Code, NCC (07) and Base Station Color Code, BCC (07).After mobile access one network it reports the measurements tot the BTS it is clamped. But there are also some other requirements to access one cell like the parameter Rx Lev Access Min (-110-47 dBm) describes the minimum value of the received field strengths required by the MS to get any services from the network in that cell in idle mode. There are cases where in spite of good field strength the operator may want to keep a cell out of use here a cell can be changed to barred state by using cell barred (Yes/ No). Any normal mobile cannot do call establishment from a barred cell. One more option is there namely emergency call restricted (Yes/No) parameter which tells if the mobile has the right to use the network for emergency calls even if it has no right to use the network for normal calls. Only for MS classes 11 to 15. Cell Barred
GPS-satelite

Existing Layer Barred, No New Microcell Layer Barred, Yes

NMS/X 5.24

Easy to test new Microcells with NMS/X 5.24 with Nokia 2110 Mobile When mobile is moving in idle mode it has to know which is the best cell offering services in each area. Cell Reselect Hysteresis (014 dB) is a parameter that the mobile uses as a margin in the comparison of the field strength levels of the adjacent cells in different location areas in idle mode. This margin uses ping pong location updates, which uses SDCCH capacity. Other parameter directly related to frequency planning is MS TxPwrMax CCH (1314 dBm) which tells the mobile the maximum transmitting power when accessing to the system. Cell Selection : In GSM system MS is always within the cell offering the best coverage. In dedicated mode this is handled by handovers, but in idle mode it is done by a process called Cell Selection, based on C1 and C2 comparison.

25

Mobile compares field strength levels coming from different cells with each other and chooses the best one. The mobile uses CallReselectHysterisys (014 dB) parameter between cells that belongs to different location area to avoid the ping pong effect which means that before the mobile changes to a different cell in idle mode, between different location areas, the field strength level of the cell has to be at least the value of CellReselectHysteresys better than the value of the serving cell.

Cell Selection in IDLE Mode, based on C1 Radio Criteria C1 = (A - Max(B,0)) A = Received Level Average - p1 B = p2 - Maximum RF Power of the Mobile Station p1 = rxLevelAccessMin p2 = msTxPowerMaxCCH
So it can be seen that the mobile takes in to account the minimum access level to the cell and the maximum transmitting power allowed to the mobile in each cell when starting a call. There is a margin only between cells that belong to different Location Areas. Comparison based on C1 is used here and the comparison based on C2 is used for two layered (micro-macro cell) architecture. Cell Selection based on C1 in practise
cellReselectHysteresis (mentioned in RR Management in IDLE mode Control) MS Moving A = 4 dB B = 6 dB C = 8 dB 1 A B C 2 2 1 A BC

In comparison based on C2, more parameters are needed. The parameter cellReselectParamInd (Yes/No) becomes activate, if C2 parameters are sent to the Mobile (activates C2) and the parameter cellBarQualify (Yes/No) controls if the cell barring can be overridden. The rest of the C2 parameters are related to microcellular planning. Parameter penalty Time (20 ... 640 s) describes the time delay before the final comparison is made between two cells. Parameter temporary Offset (0 ... 70 dB) describes how much field strength could have been dropped during this penalty time, and parameter cell Reselect Offset (0 ... 126 dB) describes an offset to cell reselection. C2 cell reselection is calculated by equation C2 = C1 + cellReselectOffset - temporaryOffset x H(penaltyTime-T) when penaltyTime640

26

or C2 = C1 - cellReselectOffset Where H(x)=1 when x>=0 and H(x)=0 when x<0 Taking an example on C2. The network consists of two cellular layers: GSM macro layer and microcellular layer. In order to prevent unnecessary camping between layers, C2 will be introduced. The idea is: the micro cell, having good DL signal strength and therefore very attractive, has to belong to one of the best cells of the neighbour list for the time set as penalty time, say 20 sec, in order to allow the MS to camp on that micro cell. The parameter temporary offset has been set to be 30 dB and cell reselect offset has been set to 20 dB. Lets assume that C1 of both serving cell and the neighbour cell has been measured as 32. Therefore two alternative cases are possible: 1. during time 0 ... 19 sec (within the set penaltyTime) : C2 =C1+cellReselectOffset-temporaryOffset * H( penaltyTime-T) C2 =32+20 -30*1 C2=22 => C2 < C1, so MS will be kept in macro layer i.e. target cell ( micro cell ) is NOT attractive. 2. during time 20 ... (penaltyTime over): C2=C1 +cellReselectOffset-temporaryOffset*H(penaltyTime-T) C2=32+20-30*0 C2=52 => C2 > C1, now target cell is very attractive and the idle mode MS will camp on the microcell. If the C2 > C1 before the penalty time is over, the cell reselection will be done immediately. If the C2 = C1 before the penalty time is over, the cell reselection will be done not until the penalty time is expired. * Note that C2 is just meant for idle mode. Location Updates : MS updates its location to network every now and then for paging carried out by network. Paging is carried out in each cell of one location area. In MSC/VLR, the location information of MS can disappear. Periodic location update is controlled by timer periodic update HS (0.025.5 hours) parameter. IMSI Attach Detach : IMSI Attach Detach(Yes/No) parameter is used to decrease signaling load. The MS sends message to MSC telling if it is switched on or off. When the MSC knows that the Mobile Station is switched off when penaltyTime=640

it does not try to page it, and useless paging is avoided.

27

Protocols :Protocols have been described in GSM specifications very carefully. The purpose of the protocols (in Radio Resource) is to describe the signalling between the Mobile Station and the Base Station in different situations. In the following, the protocols of the most usual situations are presented.

Call Assignment :Call assignment takes place when a Mobile Station makes a call (Mobile Originating Call) or receives a call (Mobile Terminating Call).

M obile O rigin atin g C all MS

CHAN REQ IM M A S S IG N CM SERV REQ

NETW ORK

Im m ediate assign m en t S ervice R equ est

AU TH REQ AUTH RES C IP H M O D C M D C IP H M O D C O M

A uthen tication C ip herin g M od e S etting

SETUP CALL PROC ASSIGN CMD ASSIGN COM ALERT

Call Initiation Assignment of Traffic Channel Call Confirmation

CONNECT CONNECT ACK

Call Accepted

As seen above, the main phases can easily be separated: Immediate Assignment, Service request, Authentication, Ciphering Mode, Call Initiation, Assignment of Traffic Channel, Call Confirmation and Call Acceptation. The same phases can actually be found in the Mobile Terminating Call, which is described below.
M obile Term inating C all MS
PA G R E Q CH A N R EQ IM M A SSIG N PA G R E S

N ETW O R K

Im m ediate assignm ent

Service R equest
A U TH R E Q A U T H RE S C IP H M O D C M D C IP H M O D C O M

A uthentication C iphering M ode Setting

28

SETUP CALL CONF ASSIGN CMD ASSIGN COM ALERT

Call Initiation Assignment of Traffic Channel Call Confirmation

CONNECT CONNECT ACK

Call Accepted

The MSC needs to know under which location area the Mobile Station can be reached. Location updates are needed for this reason and this information is needed for the paging made by the BTS.

L o c a tio n U p d a te MS
CHAN REQ IM M A S S IG N LOC UPD REQ

NETW ORK I m m e d ia te a s s ig n m e n t S e r v ic e R e q u e s t
AUTH REQ AUTH RES C IP H M O D C M D C IP H M O D C O M LOC UPD ACC TM SI R EA L C O M CHAN REL

A u th e n tic a tio n C ip h e r in g M o d e S e ttin g

C h a n n e l R e le a s e

The disconnect protocol is needed when the Mobile Station or the Network want to finish a call for some reason.

Network Initiate :

D is c o n n e c t , N e t w o r k I n it ia t e d

MS
D IS C O N N E C T REL REL COM

NETW ORK

C a ll C le a r in g

CHAN REL

R e le a s e

Mobile Station Initiated : 29

D i s c o n n e c t , M S I n i t ia t e d

MS
D IS C O N N E C T REL REL COM

NETW ORK

C a ll C le a r in g

CHAN REL

R e le a s e

Handovers : GSM provides handover for the following reasons: 1. Signal Strength(RF level uplink/downlink) 2. Rx Quality (uplink/downlink) 3. Interference (uplink/downlink) 4. Power Budget 5. Distance Of MS from Serving Cell In the different handover processes, the protocols are slightly different because in synchronised handover, no timing advance information is needed. This decreases the protocol so that no physical information needs to be sent. Both handover cases - synchronised and non-synchronised - are presented separately. Handover failure procedure has been presented as well.
H andover, Synchronized MS
A C TIV E C ALL HANDO CMD HANDO ACC HANDO ACC HANDO ACC HANDO ACC HANDO COM

N ETW O RK

O ld C hannel, O ld C ell

New C hannel, N ew C ell

A C TIV E C ALL

30

Non Synchronized Handovers :

Handover, Non-Synchronized MS
ACTIVE CALL HANDO CMD HANDO ACC . HANDO ACC PHYS INFO HANDO COM

NETWORK

Old Channel, Old Cell

New Channel, New Cell

ACTIVE CALL

Hand Failure :

Handover Failure MS
ACTIVE CALL HANDOVER CMD

NETWORK

Old Channel, Old Cell

Timer T3124 expiry or Radio Link Failure HANDOVER FAIL

New Channel, New Cell Old Channel, Old Cell

ACTIVE CALL

Traffic Channel Allocation :When network allocates a traffic channel to a Mobile Station, the principal is that a traffic channel with lowest interference level is allocated at each time. This means that Base Station measures all the time all the time slots in uplink direction and compares these measurement results by putting them in different boundaries. These boundaries can be given by parameter interference Averaging Process. The parameter InterferenceAveragingProcess is used for calculating averaged values from the interference level in the active/unallocated time slots for the traffic channel allocation procedure: AveragingPeriod is the number of SACCH multiframes from which the averaging of the interference level in the active/unallocated time slots is performed. The range is from 1 to 32. Boundary1 - Boundary4 are the limits of five interference bands for the active/unallocated time slots. The range is from -110 dBm to -47 dBm. 31

Boundary0 and Boundary5are fixed, the first one to 110 dBm and the last one to 47 dBm. The best class is the lowest receiving level class because the probability of the interference is the lowest. Calls that are assigned to a channel under heavy interference can be dropped and then these channels can be allocated again for other calls with same consequences. Applying the method of minimum acceptable uplink interference in TCH allocation, (cnThreshold) offers sufficient protection against these cases.

High level Life Cycle of RF Network Planning Architecture can be summarized as follows.

The basic I/P to the RF Coverage design are as follows:

32

Tools Required For R F Planning : 1. 4. Network Planning Tool Project Management Tool 2. CW Propagation Tool 3. Traffic Modelling Tool

1. Network Planning Tool : Planet ; Pegasos ; Cell Cad ; Netplan ; I-Planner ; Airpro 1. Traffic Modelling Tool such as Netdim by Nokia helps to calculate number of network element Needed to fulfil coverage,capacity and quality needs. 2. Project Management Tool helps maintaining site database and for inventoy control,fault tracking and finance management. GOS Determination- GOS is generally taken as 2% or as per customer requirement LINK BUDGET ANALYSIS : It is done for analyzing maximum allowable pathloss and is done to calculate all major gains and losses in forward and reverse radio link path .Using okhamura hata empherical formula initial cell radius can be calculated. Link balance calculations per cell to be done to balance the uplink and downlink path , basically it is same as power budget calculations.In power budget on a per cell basis the transmit power of the BTS may be increased or decreased depending path loss in uplink or downlink.

I/P To Link Budget Base station and Mobile receiver sensitivities, Antenna gain at the base station and mobile station, Hardware losses(cable, connectors and combiners),Target coverage reliabilities and Fade margins. O/P To Link Budget Maximum allowable path loss. Morphology is the density n height of man made or natural obstructions (urban, suburban, rural, open ) EIRP=ERP + 2.15db Radio signals travel through space at speed of light

C= 3 * 108 m/s Frequency is no of waves per second , Wavelength is distance traveled per second / No of waves per second.

MORPHOLOGY: Morphology is the density and height of the man made structures or natural obstruction(Dense Urban, Urban, Suburban, Rural, Open ).

Initial anchor sites are those which are important for network build up eg. Sites acting as BSC. Isotropic RF source has a power gain of unity-0dbi A loss less half wave dipole antenna has a power gain of 0dbd or 2.15 dbi EIRP = ERP + 2.15dB (o/p BTS power dBm + Antenna Gain dBi)

UNITS: Radio signals travel through space at speed of light C=3*108 m/s , Frequency(F) is no of waves per second, Wavelength() is distance traveled per second upon no of waves per second. = C/F so if frequency is 900 MHz then wavelength = 3 * 108 / 900 * 106 =0.333 mts

33

dBm is a unit of expression of power level in decibels with reference to power of 1mW dBm = 10 log P(in watts) 1mW = 0dBm ; 1 W power in dBm = 10log (1 W) 10(3) = 30dBm

PROPAGATION LOSS: IEEE definition of dBm is a unit for expression of power level in decibels w.r.t a power of 1mW Friis Formula: Pr = PtGtGr2 (4d) 2 Propagation Loss: Lp = 10 log [4d / ] 2 The square term is a propagation exponent. It is greater than 2 when when obstruction exists. Propagation Loss In dB: Lp = 32.44 + 20 log (d) +20 log (f) f = MHz ; d = km PROPAGATION MECHANISM : During the uplink the propagation of signals go from ME to BTS after many reflections , refractions , diffractions and fading effects. Similarly during the downlink the signal starts from BTS to ME undergoing all the above mentioned effects. Elaborated explanation for these terms are as mentioned as below. Reflection: when wave impinges upon smooth surface. Diffraction: It is also called as shadowing .It occurs when the path is blocked by large objects relative to & sharp irregularities and the secondary wavelets propagate into shadowed region, diffraction gives rise to bending of waves around obstacle. Scattering: It occurs when wave impinges upon an object with dimentions on order of or less causing reflected energy to spread out or scatter in many directions. Causes are street light , sign boards, leaves e.t.c. Multipath: It is an effect where the signal from transmitter end to receiver end travels through many different paths after reflections and refractions. As an effect the receiver ends up with many signals causing large and rapid fluctuation in signals . Results of multipath are Rapid changes in signal strength over a short distance or time Random frequency modulation due to dopplers shift on different multipath signals Time dispersions are caused by multipath delays and all other fading effects.

34

Fading: Degradation in signal strength / Quality due to reflection ,diffraction e.t.c. The non LOS path causes long term and short term fluctuations in the form of log normal fading, reyleigh & racian fading which degrades the performance of RF channel.

Long term fading caused by shadowing & terrain effects where the mean received signal strength r around the base station varies log normally in dB if signal strength is measured over a distance of 40 . Experimentally it is determined that the standard deviation of the mean received signal strength r lies between 8 to 12 dB which increases in urban areas. Rayleight fading is due to multipath propagation where all signals are Non-LOS with comparable signal strength and there is no dominant or direct path and instantaneous received power seen by moving antenna becomes a random variable depending on location of antenna. Racean fading is also due to multipath where there is one dominant signal and others are weaker. Doplers shift is due to shift in frequency due to motion of mobile from actual carrier frequency. Change in frequency due to dopplers shift is given by fd = (v/ ) * cos() , it is concluded that if mobile is moving towards direction of arrival of wave, then dopplers shift is positive and received frequency increases.

35

RF Path Between MS & BTS: I/Ps : Base station and mobile receiver sensitivity parameters Minimum acceptable SNR Environmental / Thermal noise Reciever Noise Figure Antenna Gain at BS and MS Hardware Losses(cables, connectors, combiners, duplexers) Target coverage reliability Fade Margins . O/Ps : BS ERP Maximum Allowable Pathloss Cellsize Estimates Cell count Estimates. Gains & Losses in RF Path: GAIN : Base station antenna gain , Mobile antenna gain , Diversity gain. LOSSES : Hardware losses(combiners, cables, connectors & duplexers) ; Air interface(fade margin, penetration loss, In car, In building, Body loss) MS Antenna Gain 0-1 dBd , Car Mounted 1-3 dBd . Base Station Antenna Gain Omnidirectional antenna has 0-9 dBd , Directional Antenna has gain of 9-14 dBd. Diversity Gain It is used in uplink to overcome deep fades due to multipath by combining multiple uncorrelated signals they are realised by physically separating two receiving antennas in space by using polarization diversity. Connector Losses Losses here are typically 0.1 dB each Combiner Losses They are devices which enable several transmitters of different frequencies to transmit from same antenna. They are of two types Hybrid combiners, which combines 2 i/p to 1 o/p and got a insertion loss of 3dB Cavity combiners which combines more i/ps to one o/p , they also have a typical loss of 3dB. Cavity combiners cannot be used in cells where synthesizer frequency hopping is used. Duplexer Losses It enables simultaneous transmission and reception of signals on same antenna and provides isolation between transmitted and received signals. They have a typical insertion loss of 0.5 to 1dB.

Body Loss This loss is considered during both uplink and downlink and the typical value is taken as 2 dB. Penetration Loss It depends on the location of subscribers with respect to site , they are In building 15 dB , In car 3 to 10 dB and Body loss(outdoor) 2 to 5 dB . FADE MARGIN CALCULATIONS:

36

Cell Area Probability : It is the percentage of the cell area that has signal strength greater than the receiver sensitivity, it is dependent on the radio environment , primarily the standard deviation of the log normal faded signal () and the propagation loss constant (n). Its Calculation : Pca = (1+ erf(a) + exp (2ab+1/b2 )(1- erf(ab + 1/b) ) ) Where Pca is the cell area probability a = M fade/ ; b = 10n log 10 (e) / 2 Mfade - fade margin applied ; n propagation constant ; standard deviation of received signals. Outdoor Fade Margin : It depends on standard deviation of log normal shadowing and propagation loss which in turn depends on environment and frequency. For urban areas constant varies from 2.7 to 5 where the typical value is 5 for 850/1900 MHz. Urban areas have higher standard deviation than rural areas, typical value range is 5-12 dB with 8 dB as typical value. Receiver Sensitivity : It is the ability of a receiver to receive signals and sense that any signals below sensitivity is considered as noise and not usable. It is given by S = Antenna Noise (dBm) + Reciever Noise Figure (dB) + C/N (dB) Where, S = receiver sensitivity ; C/N = Carrier to Noise ratio required in the presence to achieve a specific BER Antenna Noise (dBm) = 10 log (kTB) Where, k = Boltzmann Constant 1.38 10-20 millijoules / Kelvin T = Room temperature in K ; B = Bandwidth in Hertz MAXIMUM ALLOWABLE PATH LOSS:

Maximum Allowable Path Loss(Uplink):

37

MAPL(up) = Pm (Transmitted Power from ME) + Gm (ME Antenna Gain) + Body Loss (L body) L bld (In Building / Car Penetration Loss) Fade margin (M fade) + GRA (Gain Of Receiving Antenna) + GD (Diversity Gain) Lccc (Cable / Connectors / Combiner losses) + R sensitivity (Receiver Sensitivity) MAPL(down) = PBTS (Transmitted Power at BTS) - Lccc(Cable / Connectors / Combiner losses) + GANT (Gain Of Transmitting Antenna)*(+GD(Diversity Gain)applicable only in case of diversity antennas) Fade Margin Body Loss(LBODY) L bld (InBuilding / Car Penetration Loss) + Gm(Antenna of ME) + R sensitivity (Mobile Receiver Sensitivity) LINKBUDGET FOR GENERAL PURPOSE: Downlink BTS to MS BTS Tx Power 43 dBm Combining loss 3 dB Feeder loss 2 dB BTS antenna gain 17 dBi Total EIRP 55 dBm Uplink MS to BTS MS Tx Power MS Antenna gain 33 dBm 0 dBi

Total EIRP

33 dBm

MS Rx Sensitivity -102 dBm MS Antenna Gain 0 dBi

Fading Margin 6 dB Penetration Loss 0 dB Antenna / Body Loss 2 dB Maximum Allowed Pathloss Linkbalance (downlink / uplink) -1 dB Hatas Empherical Formula : PL = 69.55 + 26.6 log10 fc CW Testing & MODEL TUNING : WHY CW? 149 dB

BTS Antenna Gain 17 dBi Feeder Loss 2 dB Diversity Gain 3 dB BTS Rx Sensitivity -107 dBm Fading Margin 6 dB Penetration Loss 0 dB Antenna / Body Loss 2 dB Maximum Allowed Pathloss 149 dB

Quality of a network is dependent on the accuracy of the propagation model used to produce coverage prediction for its cells. Empirical models , such as Okamura Hata employed by ASSET, require tuning which compares predicted signal level with actual signal level determined by CW Test.The Model can be caliberated by adjusting parameters to minimize discrepancy. Contineous Wave Testing (Procedure) : Major factors to be taken under consideration Before The Drive, 1. 2. 3. Checking all the Equipments for Performance & Safety. Site Selection For CW & No. Of CWs Per Clutter Antenna Type , Height & Positioning as per Clutter.

38

4.

Drive Planning

*1 All the equipments like transmitters, cables, connectors and antennas are to be checked for optimum performance and should be properly set up at the survey site. Power : Constant stable power must be used throughout the surveyes . This radiated power should be high enough so that the radiated signal would be sufficiently higher than the noise floor. Frequency : The test frequency should be so selected so that *2. The number of CW tests to be done and where to be done as per clutter still remains a question..?

The total terrain of any region is categorized in different type of morphologies for eg. High Dense Urban Dense Urban - Urban - Suburban - Rural - Highway (Open Street) e.t.c . The places and the number of CW tests to be performed are as per clutter i.e if there are variations in even one type of morphology in terms of density or distribution of man made structures (which are the major causes of signal attenuation) then more than 1 CW will be needed for that particular clutter in order to average the signal loss resulting in more precise models. The CW test sites should be so selected and the drive should be so planned that it can be restricted within periphery it to one particular clutter apart from the consideration that it should be a representative of a typical BTS site considering issues such as general environment , antenna height surrounding clutter characteristics . Sites should essentially have flat rooftops with power outlets and with no Near site obstruction. Site selection is a very important part as the type of site selected is the factor which directly effects the quality of drive done. *3 The positioning of the antenna above the rooftop are to be so taken care of to help avoid the shadowing effect caused by the roof *4 The various factors which are to be taken care of for drive planning thus shaping & validating CW data. It is important to collect statistically significant amount of data. More data available more accurately the model can be caliberated. Data should be evenly distributed with respect to distance from the transmitter.Distance should also be taken into consideration as per clutter type. The data collected should be sufficient to ensure minimum of 600 valid data points for each clutter category.

PROPAGATION MODEL : Models such as Okhamura Hata work on principle of path loss calculation.The area under study is divided into a grid.The path loss(loss in radio signal strength) is calculated between each square in the grid and the base station transmitter.If radiated power of the transmitter is known this information can be used to calculate signal strength at each square in the grid.

39

Figure (1) Signal Levels shown are in dBm No propagation model is accurate over all types of terrain,for eg. Propagation model tha would produce accurate predictions for swiss alps would not be suitable for a flat area such as New York. So propagation model needs to be tuned depending on area under study. MODEL PARAMETERS : Standard Macrocell (1) propagation model employed by ASSET has several parameters that can be used to tune the Okumura-Hata empherical model with a number of additional features to enhance its flexibility.The model is known to be valid for frequencies in the range of 150MHz to 2 GHz. The standard macrocell model in asset has large no of parameters and options which may be selected or caliberated by the user in order to obtain a close representation to measured propagation data. Path Loss Parameters: The basic equation used in the pathloss calculation is as follows. Lmodel = K1 + K2 log(d) + K3 log(HTxeff) + K4 * Diffraction loss + K5 log(d) * log(HTxeff) + K6(H Rxeff) +Kclutter f(clutter) Where: K1 constant offset (dB) K2 Multiplying factor for log (d) d Distance between the reciever and tah transmitter (m) K3 multiplying factor for log Lp, Ldiff and Lclutter are in dB D, Hms and Heff are in m The Seven K values can be adjusted ,adjusting the predictions for the path loss due to terrain. In addition to the basic pathloss calculation the following refinements are available within the model: Four different algorithms for calculation of the effective height of base station (Heff ) Effective Site Antenna Height(Heff) Algorithm:

Four different algorithms for calculating the total diffraction loss (Ldiff) due to multiple knife edges along a profile from base station to mobile. Diffraction Method :

40

The facility to set end point clutter loss offsets for each clutter type. The facility to set clutter and/or mobile heights for each clutter type which is then added to the terrain height (and hence influence the diffraction calculations) when calculating the propagation from base station to mobile. Clutter Offsets :

REQUIRED DATA: Mapping Data: Mapping data is the integral component in the prediction calculations and thus accurate data is essential for any prediction model model to function correctly. The data acquired should also be up to date reflecting the recent changes in the clutter. To obtain an accurate model we should have A country wide dataset for macrocell modeling in rural and semirural locations. More detailed datasets for macrocell modeling in towns and cities. Countrywide Datasets: It should typically comprise of 50m digital terrain model(DTM) layer (Z accuracy of + 10m). 50m clutter type layer at least 10 types of land usage should be classified. Vector (line) information to include at least highways, roads, railways, coastline, rivers and boundaries. Text information to include at least city and town names. Scanned maps and/or satellite images. Urban Datasets: It should comprise of 20m DTM layer (Z accuracy of + 10m) 20m clutter type layer categorized with the same land usage codes as the countrywide dataset but the additional clutter classification to permit more accurate urban modeling. Eg open in urban, isolated high rise and so on. Recommended CW Data: In order to caliberate the propagation model a comparison is carried out between the predicted propagation and actual measured data which is collected with the help of series of CW surveys. The accuracy of the model is directly related to the validity and accuracy of the CW data. Test sites should be representatives of the typical BTS sites,

41

considering issues such as general environment and antenna height, surrounding clutter characteristics etc. To ensure positional accuracy the use of Differential GPS (DGPS)

TUNING PROCESS : It involves producing predictions using the propagation model and comparing these to the actual signal level from CW Tests.

42

FREQUENCY PLANNING : In general the frequency planning is broadly divided in two parts since the available band for any operator is not big enough that we can use a different frequency for every cell so there is a necessity of frequency reuse where same frequency is used a number of times avoiding adjacencies. The two major factorials of the frequency planning are 1) BCCH Planning 2) TCH Planning(for hopping frequencies)

BCCH Planning Type : 3 / 9 and 4 / 12 TCH Planning Type : 1 / 3 and 1 / 1

- MOTOROLA CP02 JIST Advantages Of Mobile Subscribers : Mobility Flexibility Convinience

Advantages To Network Provider :

Network Expansion Flexibility Revenue/Profit Margin Efficiency Easier Reconfiguration

Network Components :

PSTN Public Switched Telephone Network MSC Mobile Service Switching Centre BSS Base Station System MS Mobile Station Cell Coverage Area

Frequency Range: GSM 900: Receive (Uplink) 890 -915 MHz Transmit (Downlink) 935 960 MHz 124 Absolute Radio Frequency Channels (ARFCN) EGSM 900:

43

Receive (Uplink) 880 -915 MHz Transmit (Downlink) 925 960 MHz 174 Absolute Radio Frequency Channels (ARFCN)

GSM 1800 (DCS 1800): Receive (Uplink) 1710 -1785 MHz Transmit (Downlink) 1805 1880 MHz 374 Absolute Radio Frequency Channels (ARFCN) PCS 1900: Receive (Uplink) 1850 -1910 MHz Transmit (Downlink) 1930 1990 MHz 299 Absolute Radio Frequency Channels (ARFCN) ARFCN: Bandwidth = 200 KHz 8 TDMA Timeslots

Sources Of Noise :

Vehicle Ignition System Lightning Co Channel Interference Adjacent Channel Interference Background Spurious Noise

GSM Answers :

Digital Interface Interleaving Error Detection Error Correction

Flexibility/Increased Capacity :

Easily (RF) Configured (software driven) Half Rate International Roaming Better Frequency Reuse Multi Band Operation

Enhanced Range Of Services :

Offered by Network Provider Purchased By Subscriber Capabilities Of Mobile Equipment

Speech Services :

44

Telephony Emergency Calls Short Message Services Dual Personal & Business Numbers

Data Services:

Raw Data 9.6 kbit/s 4.8 kbit/s 2.4 kbit/s Fax

Supplementary Services: Number Identification Call Barring Call Forwarding Call Completion Charging Multi-party

BSS Components : It provides the link between MSC and MS. Its major components are.. BTS Base Transceiver System BSC Base Station Controller XCDR Transcoder , which is used to compact the signals from the MS so that they can be more efficiently sent over the terrestrial interface. BSS functionalities are given below..

Transcoder :

45

It is required to convert the speech or data o/p from MSC (64 kbps PCM), into the form specified by GSM specification for transfer over the air interface, that is between the BSS and MS. The information is transmitted at a gross rate of 16 kbps after compression. Transcoding function may be located at MSC, BSC or BTS. Content of 16kbps data depends on the type of coding algorithm used i.e half rate coding algorithm or full rate coding algorithm there is also one more called as enhanced full rate coding algorithm. Network Switching System Components : Mobile Service Switching Center MSC Home Location Register HLR Visitor Location Register VLR Equipment Identity Register EIR Authentication Center AUC Interworking Functions IWF Echo Canceller EC

MSC Functionalities : Call Processing Control of data/voice call setup , inter-BSS and inter-MSC handover Operation & Maintenance Support Database management, traffic metering and measurement & man machine interface Internetwork Interworking Manages interfacing between GSM and PSTN. Billing

HLR Contents : It is reference database for subscriber parameters. It contains various identification number and addresses as well as authentication parameters. They are Subscriber ID (IMSI or MSISDN) Current Subscriber VLR (current location) Supplementary Services subscribed to Supplementary service information (e.g. current forwarding number) Subscriber Status (registered/deregistered) Authentication Key and AUC function Mobile Station Roaming Number VLR Contents :

46

It contains most of the contents of HLR in addition the data stored in VLR are Mobile Status (busy/free/no answer e.t.c) Location Area Identity Temporary Mobile Subscriber Identity (TMSI) Mobile Subscriber Roaming No (MSRN)

LAI : Cells within PLMN are grouped together into geographical areas each assigned a LAI which typically contains of 30 cells when subscriber moves from one LAI to another it is updated in the VLR. TMSI : VLR controls allocation of TMSI which is updated frequently making it very difficult to trace a call thus giving high degree of security. TMSI may be updated in any of the following situations Call setup On entry to new LAI On entry to new VLR MSRN : this no is assigned from a list of numbers held at the VLR . EIR : Equipment identity register contains centralized database for validating the IMEI. The EIR database consists of White list IMEI assigned to valid MS Black list IMEI reported stolen Grey list IMEI of MS having problems EC : Echo canceller used on the PSTN side of the MSC is required at the switch because inherent GSM delay can cause an unacceptable echo condition. Interface Names : Each interface specified within the GSM system has a name associated with it for e.g Um A-Bis A B C D E F G H MS BTS BTS BSC BSC MSC MSC VLR MSC HLR VLR HLR MSC MSC MSC EIR VLR VLR HLR AUC

47

48