THE EFFECT OF MATERIAL STRESSES ON ELECTROMAGNETIC

BOUNDARY CONDITIONS
Jack Nachamkin
The Boeing Company in Philadelphia
P.O. Box 16858
MS P32-21
Philadelphia, PA 19142-0858
ABSTRACT
The appearance of a layer of charge or current on the boundary of a material usually implies that a
discontinuity in an electromagnetic field occurs at that boundary. The converse is not necessarily true. The
reaction of the electromagnetic field to the charge or current layer is a stress communicated across the
boundary. Determination of the charge or current on a boundary must take all the stresses and
electromechanical interactions at the boundary into account. Calculating surface currents or charges derived
from electromagnetic field quantities alone, ignoring mechanical stresses, may lead to wrong answers at
material boundaries. In short, the occurrence of charge or current on material in the presence of an
electromagnetic field is intimately related to momentum conservation. A postulate equivalent to identifying
the Poynting vector with energy flow is introduced linking surface currents and charges to momentum
balance at the surface. A formally correct method for calculating surface currents and charges based on
momentum balance is described.
I. INTRODUCTION
Boundary conditions for Maxwells equations are usually derived ignoring the contributions
from mechanical stresses that can arise in the presence of electromagnetic fields. It is not that
these contributions are unknown. Smythe
1
recognizes that mechanical forces have to be taken
into account when calculating the charge density on the surface of a conductor in contact with a
dielectric. The formula derived there is accompanied by the statement, Neglecting
electrostriction and remembering that the field is normal to the surface (Bottom of page 33 of
Smythes book.) Eringens book
2
rigorously handles boundaries in a satisfying manner.
It is common in textbooks
3,4
devoted to electromagnetic theory to treat the derivation of
boundary conditions at material surfaces as a subject totally independent of the treatment of the
momentum and energy associated with the electromagnetic field and its interactions with matter.
In many cases this is true even when their treatment of energy and momentum is otherwise
complete and rigorous. Such derivations are usually associated with name pillbox method
wherein the fields at faces of a thin volume are analyzed.
The experimental fact that electromagnetic fields can transport energy and momentum implies
the need for an axiom linking Maxwells equations and the classical laws of mechanics. That
axiom is the identification of the familiar Poynting vector, H E with the flow of energy, or
A J , where Aand J are the vector potential and current density, with an energy density.
Although the analysis leading to these conclusions is very suggestive and highly satisfying
intuitively, the association of functions of the electromagnetic field quantities with mechanical
1
energy is not a direct consequence of Maxwells equations. It can only be verified with
experimental evidence.
From Smythes and Eringens arguments it is clear that in the absence of electrostrictive,
magnetostrictive and moving materials, among other conditions, the pillbox method conserves
momentum and energy. On the other hand, especially in the presence of material interacting with
the electromagnetic fields, the pillbox method for deriving the sources on that boundary may not
lead to the correct momentum / energy balance.
The book by Eringen
2
rigorously formulates the theory to include appropriate material stresses
on an equal footing with electromagnetic stresses, so that all the ideas put forth in this note are
not that new. Some electrical engineers might find Eringens notation somewhat arcane, but his
analysis is well worth understanding.
As far as field jumps are considered, a somewhat similar situation arises in the study of
compressible non-viscous fluid dynamics. There the partial differential equations governing the
flow allow discrete jumps in variables, called shocks, to form. Equations for the evolution of
shocks (Hugoniot Relations) cannot be determined by the fluid-dynamic equations alone, but
must be calculated by directly resorting to basic conservation laws of energy and momentum
across discontinuities
5
.
As will be shown below, an unexpected consequence of equating stresses arising from
electromagnetic and mechanical sources leads to a surprising set of self-consistent solutions.
These solutions allow a time-harmonic electromagnetic wave to be trapped inside a rotating
plasmoid having compact support, with electromagnetic field discontinuities on its boundary,
and having no current or charge on its boundary.
II. CONSERVATION LAWS AT A BOUNDARY
To illustrate the ideas to be addressed in
this note in a simple manner, consider the
Gedanken experiment suggested by fig. 1.
Two parallel-plate capacitors, identical in
size, are fabricated having internal
dielectrics bonded to their immovable
rigid electrodes
1
. Capacitor A has a
dielectric that does not deform in an
electric field. Capacitor B has a
dielectric that will deform in an electric
field. The latter dielectric has a finite bulk
modulus and can thereby store elastic
1
Bonding the dielectric to immobile plates allows an experimenter to ignore changes in the size of an electrostrictive
dielectric away from its edges. Conceptual analysis is made easier because the dielectric material in both cases fills
the same volume. The basic arguments do not depend on whether the dielectric material is bonded to the capacitor
plates. Being constrained to the same volume, it is obvious that the elastic material is incorporating mechanical
stresses and thereby storing energy. It is also tacitly assumed that all processes are adiabatic and reversible.
2
A B
NORMAL ELECTROSTRICTIVE
+V
0
+Q
-Q
-(Q+)
Q+
Figure 1. A Gedanken Experiment. The capacitor with the
constrained electrostrictive dielectric needs more charge to
bring it up to the same potential as the capacitor with the non-
electrostrictive dielectric. Electric fields are the same in both
when charged.
+V
0
energy. Both dielectrics are assumed to have the same permittivity at the final field strength.
Both capacitors are charged to potential V by identical sources.
The energy, and therefore the charge, needed to bring A up to source voltage is less than that
needed for B by the amount of elastic energy stored in B.
From purely geometric reasoning, the electric field, E, in each capacitor, and therefore also the
electric displacement, D, in each capacitor are identical to the corresponding quantities in the
other capacitor. The using the familiar formula for layer-charge density, D n , for the charge
density on both capacitors will give the wrong answer for at least one of these cases. It may be
argued that an effective permittivity can be defined to account for the extra charge. This is
incorrect because the term E
2
, the putative electric-field energy density, would then
incorrectly include the mechanical energy density.
Instead of the pillbox method at field discontinuities, it will be assumed that momentum and
energy are conserved there. In the case of a rigid perfectly conducting boundary, such as inside a
hollow rigid conducting cavity, i.e., where the forces on both sides of the boundary do not
involve material stresses (one side is vacuum), revised analysis will yield the same results as the
pillbox method. New, and unexpected, results are obtained when applied to a finite-sized rotating
plasma with a resonant time-harmonic wave trapped inside of it.
III. CONSERVATION LAWS AND STRESSES
The classical stress at a point in three-dimensional space is the sum of the effect of all the
separate stress tensors associated with all the fields that couple stress to the point. In addition to
the electrostrictive case in fig. 1, material boundary stresses must be considered. For example,
plasma strongly coupled to a time-harmonic electromagnetic field, i.e., where the plasma acts as
a confining waveguide for the field, has stress components that are the sum of the contributions
due to fluid dynamics and electromagnetics. In this case the fluid and electromagnetic stresses
cannot be considered independently. If, however, the plasma is perfectly transparent to the
electromagnetic field the stresses on the wall due to fluid dynamics must be considered
independently of the electromagnetic stresses. Again, if the plasma is stationary, the fluid
stresses will generally be decoupled from the electromagnetic stresses if the plasma pressure
does not depend on the electromagnetic field. In that case, to first order, the plasma will merely
act like a stationary material with a given permittivity and permeability, replacing the vacuum.
In the absence of material the only stresses are due to the electromagnetic stress tensor,
2
S. The
divergence of
2
S is a vector whose components are the classical forces per unit volume on
charges and currents in otherwise empty space
1
,

( ) ( ) H E B J E S

+ +
t
0 0
2
,
(2a)
3
where

is the charge density, E is the electric field, J is the current density, B is the magnetic
induction, H is the magnetic field intensity, 0

is the permittivity of the vacuum, and 0

is its
permeability. The last term in eq. (2a) has dimensions equivalent to describing a rate of flow of
energy density (Poynting vector). Another interpretation of eq. (2a) is that it is dimensionally
equivalent to the gradient of a pressure. The electromagnetic stress tensor, then, has the
dimensions of pressure, i.e., force per unit area. At a surface the gradient of
2
S can generate a
force proportional to area but not necessarily orthogonal to the surface.
Another interpretation of eq. (2a) is that it represents the rate of change of momentum density
(force per unit volume) at a point.
A subtle detail concerning eq. (2a) is that it is usually derived using Maxwell's equations,
involving the sum of spatial derivatives, i.e., the gradient operator in its curl and divergence
form. In spite of this the right hand side of eq. (2a) contains no spatial derivatives. The leap that
this note takes is that the form of eq. (2a) is to be taken as an axiom independent of Maxwells
equations. Rewriting eq. (2a), a generalized force, f, can be introduced:

( )

+ + B D B J E f
t
,
(2b)
In eq. (2b) the asterisk (*) implies the complex conjugate, especially applicable where the fields
are denoted by phasor quantities

. Stratton
3
derives a very similar equation, going further by
including gradients in the permittivity and permeability of the medium. His equivalent leap in
logic is the interpretation of Poyntings theorem to represent energy flow. It is important to note
that eq. (2b) makes no mention of the origin of charges and currents, philosophically divorcing
them from divergences and curls of vector field quantities. Equation (2b) says that the specific
force on a matter distribution due to electromagnetic effects arises from the fact that charge or
current distributions happen to be in the neighborhood of electromagnetic fields. There is no
reference to the bearing of fields with respect to the charges and currents. Where the fields are
continuous and differentiable equation (2a) and (2b) are generally derivable from Maxwells
equations. Where discontinuities occur, using eq. (2b) as an axiom allows the appearance of
currents and charges that do not disobey the conservation of momentum and energy. In other
words, using the formula D n to describe the charge on a conducting surface is incorrect if
it leads to violation of momentum and / or energy conservation.
Applying the above reasoning to the capacitor problem in fig. 1, the charge on the plates of B
can be determined only after the normal mechanical stresses on the plates due to electrostriction
leading to elastic energy storage are taken into account.
If an electromagnetic field in a rest frame has a boundary on a stationary immovable material
obstacle in the same rest frame, where at least one of the field quantities becomes discontinuous,
the momentum transfer to the obstacle must be zero. In order for this to happen the reaction of
the obstacle is to be coupled to either a current or a charge distribution that can react back onto

Equation (2b) can be derived by the same method Stratton uses, using the complex conjugate functions as post
multipliers. Note that for steady time-harmonic functions the quantities are independent of time. For example, a
monochromatic plane wave will exert a constant force on a stationary object, independent of frequency.
4
the field and balance the total stresses. In the case of the Gedanken capacitors, the resultant
charge densities on all the plates will not necessarily be simply related to the normal component
of the electric displacements at the plates.
If an electromagnetic field is strongly coupled to a medium that has a boundary on a moving
material, or if the strongly coupled material medium is moving, or is electrostrictive or
magnetostrictive, the current and / or charge that transfers the momentum / energy out of the
field and into the material must be adjusted to take into account the momentum / energy transfers
that are occurring. As a trivial example, if the momentum transfer rate is zero at a fixed boundary
due to the total stresses at the boundary, no charge or current can be allowed to appear that can
unbalance the momentum transfer rate, irrespective of the electromagnetic field at the boundary.
In other words, it is theoretically possible to have a tangential magnetic field discontinuity at a
fixed boundary without the appearance of a surface current on that boundary. This situation can
arise within the framework of present theory and will be described in a subsequent section.
In what follows, the only component
of stress at a surface that will be
considered will be the component
normal to the surface. More
specifically, only those
electromagnetic fields with field
components either parallel or
orthogonal to boundary surfaces will
be considered. An electric field
orthogonal to a surface bearing a
charge will exert a normal force on
that surface. A magnetic field parallel
to a surface where a current is flowing
will exert a force orthogonal to that
surface.
This is illustrated in fig. 2 where the
magnetic field, H, is nonzero on one
side of a stationary perfect conductor
in a vacuum and zero inside the
conductor. A current, I, is induced on
the surface. The magnetic field exerts
a force, F, on the conductor, directed
into the conductor.
If, instead of a magnetic field outside of the conductor there were a fluid flowing in the same
direction as the magnetic field, the force on the conductor due to the fluid would be directed
outwardly, along the normal, n, in fig. 2. This is the well-known Bernoulli effect
6
. In other
words, if the RMS intensity of a magnetic field and a fluid velocity field were to have the same
form and are parallel at the surface of a material, it is possible that the net time-averaged pressure
at the surface could be zero. If the coupling of the fluid to the wave carrying the magnetic field
5
n
H
I
F
vacuum
Figure 2. Fields and Forces at a Conductor. The jump in the
magnetic field at the surface of a stationary conductor induces a
current on the surface of the conductor and a force directed into
the conductor.
conductor
were large enough the stress due to the fluid motion and the stress due to the electromagnetic
field could not be decoupled. Any current induced on the boundary surface could only react with
the magnetic field to produce a force on the surface. Therefore the only current that would be
induced on the surface would be equivalent to having just enough magnitude to be able to make
up the difference in electromagnetic and fluid stresses when reacting to the magnetic field alone.
In the case of total stress cancellation, no current would be induced on the surface even though
the magnetic field would abruptly change at the surface.
IV. A PRESCRIPTION
A specific prescription for calculating the charge or current at a boundary can be given. This
prescription will avoid depending on the field values on the surface a pillbox whose boundaries
contain points where the electromagnetic field quantities are discontinuous. Examples applying
the prescription will be given.
Steps at a classical boundary are (observer at rest):
1. Solve (or be given the solution of) Maxwell's equations in the region where the fields are
continuous.
2. From the solution of Maxwell's equations, determine the electromagnetic stresses in terms of
currents and charge densities, the material stresses and rate of momentum and energy
transfers at the boundary.
3. Determine the extent to which the material stresses are coupled to the electromagnetic
stresses.
4. Compute the net stresses needed to balance the momentum transfers.
5. Calculate the currents and / or surface charges needed to conserve momentum and energy
when reacting only with the electromagnetic field.
These steps may not be easy to follow,
especially step 3. In many cases,
however, the classical result can
easily be obtained. In fig. 3 an infinite
uniform magnetic field is in contact
with an infinite plane perfect
conductor. To derive the boundary
current for this magnetostatic problem
the following steps can be followed.
(Note that the Cartesian z axis is taken
to be parallel to the normal n.)
Step 1: The field is uniform along the
surface and equal to H.
Step 2: The normal stress is directed
into the conductor and equal to
3

6
Figure 3. Current on a Conductor. The jump in the magnetic field
at the surface of a stationary conductor induces a current on the
surface of the conductor. Assume the current to be in a thin layer.
z
n
H
J
vacuum
conductor
.
2
2
0
H
zz
S (6)
Step 3: The electromagnetic stress is not coupled to any other stress in the region to the left of
the boundary.
Step 4: The stress on the conductor is matched by the reaction of the conductor to give zero
momentum transfer. Therefore there must be a coating of current on the conductor to react with
the magnetic field to produce the mechanical stress, which the material opposes.
To calculate this current assume first that a thin but finite thickness layer of uniform current
density, J, coats the surface of the conductor. Since the field drops to zero at the surface,
Maxwells equations dictate that the field rises linearly in the current layer. From Gauss
theorem, the volume integral of the electromagnetic stress is equal to the surface integral if the
divergence of the stress. Therefore

.


v
zz
dv da S B J n

(3)
Substituting and integrating over a finite patch of dimensions thickness area ds dA ,
.
2
1
2
2
0
ds dA dA H J H
0

(4)
In eq. (4) the factor of on the right side is a consequence of the linearity of H within the
uniform current distribution and represents the average value of the value of H in the integral. It
follows that the surface current,
ds J I
, has the magnitude
H I
. From the geometric
considerations, I has the direction shown in fig. 2 and can therefore be written H n I , which
is the usual formula. In the limit as 0 ds the current becomes a true surface layer.
The assumption here was that the conductor was reacting to the electromagnetic stress to exactly
counteract it. There being no counteracting stresses outside the conductor, the entire mechanical
stress had to be generated by a surface current interacting with the magnetic field. At no point in
the derivation was a field point employed that did not obey Maxwells PDEs. A pillbox is not
needed.
The above prescription can also be applied to a plane-wave front having a sharp cutoff. This case
is trivial since all the momentum / energy is accounted for by the third term in eq. (5b).
Therefore no charge or current can be associated with the wavefront without violating
momentum / energy conservation.
V. NONPROPAGATING WAVES
7
The next case is a somewhat remarkable consequence of the above theory.
Consider a spherical volume of ionized plasma having a vortical motion that is described by the
velocity,
( ) , , r
l
V
, at any point in spherical coordinates, where
7

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( )
( )
( )
( ) ( ) ( ) . sin sin sin cos 1 , ,
1
1

t
1
]
1

+

l
l
l l
l
l l
l
r j
r
r j
l r j
r
r j
l r r V

(5)
The vectors in eq. (5) are the familiar three-dimensional right-handed polar coordinate unit
vectors. The j
l
s are spherical Bessel functions. The velocity in eq. (5) has a special property. It
is proportional to its curl, and is frequently referred to as a Beltrami vortex or a force-free vortex:

( ) ( ). , , , , t r r
l l
V V
(6)
Such a vortex is theoretically stable in a kinematics sense
8
but occurring by itself in a real gas it
will quickly disperse due to internal self-generated forces.
Surprisingly, the form of eq. (6) also describes a time-harmonic electromagnetic standing wave
with rotational frequency
f 2
. With wave number c / k , and in the presence of current,
a standing wave can be found whose magnetic field obeys eq. (5). That excitation can be written
in phasor form, with harmonic time dependence
t j
e

suppressed,

( )
.
;
;
E J
H E
V H

,
_

0
2 2
0
, ,
k
j
j
r
(7)
Note eq.(7) states that the current, J, is 90 degrees out of phase with the electric field, so there is
no dissipation. In addition, E is parallel to and also 90 degrees out of phase with B, so that
electromagnetic energy is not flowing. It can be shown that
7
the RMS interaction energy of the
current with the electromagnetic field,
Q
, in the presence of the vector potential within the
above excitation is

,
_

V
x d
k
Q
3
2
2
2
0
1
2
H
, (8)
where integration is over the volume of the excitation.
The above equations describe a time-harmonic electromagnetic standing wave current trapped
inside a plasma vortex. From eq. (8) if
2 2
> k the electromagnetic energy contribution of the
current within the excitation is negative, implying that the current resides in a potential well,
analogous to the total energy of a bound electron in an atom. Classically, this also means that if a
8
systems total energy is negative, energy must be added to disassemble the system. If the
magnetic field integral is large enough, the excitation coupled to the rotating plasma can have an
overall negative energy associated with it, implying a stable bound state, even when the kinetic
energy of the plasma motion is counted.
Suppose the excitation described above exists only in the spherical region 0
0 r r
such that
( ) 0
0
r j
l
. Let 1 l . Equation (5) says that the plasma flow is along the surface of the sphere,
from pole to pole. Vectors E and B are also parallel to the surface of the sphere and
discontinuous. Assume that the electromagnetic wave is so strongly coupled to the plasma that
deforming the plasma will force the wave to undergo the identical deformation. In other words
the plasma serves as a waveguide for the standing wave. From what has been already been said,
since the stress tensors associated with the fluid motion and the electromagnetic field result in
oppositely directed forces, their sum at the boundary of the sphere can be zero under the correct
conditions of field strength, fluid velocity, fluid density, and charge density
7
. If these conditions
are met the stand-alone plasma excitation will be conditionally stable, the electromagnetic field
cannot decay by radiating away, and there is no need for surface charge or current to sustain
discontinuities in the fields at its boundary.
It can be shown that normal atmospheric gases, at terrestrial conditions of temperature and
pressure, can sustain such an excitation
7
. From arguments due to virial
9,10,11
considerations
2
such
plasmoids must have finite lifetimes, but may be capable of short-term storage of large
amounts of energy. Because of the negative energy associated with the current, a spherical
plasmoid can be stable to small deformations during its lifetime
7
.
While it is speculative that the plasmoids just described actually exist or can be created by any
means, they represent valid formal solutions to the equations governing plasmas and
electromagnetic waves. The suggestion has been made
7
that these force-free time-harmonic
plasmoids may explain the occurrence of some forms of ball lightning
12
.
VI. DISCUSSION
The calculation of surface currents and charge layers must take into account the stresses and
momentum transfers that may or may not be implied by discontinuities in either electric or
magnetic fields at a boundary between two different materials or a material and a vacuum. The
textbook pillbox method omitting mechanical stresses is incomplete and gives wrong results in
some cases.
While arguments in Strattons book take great care to describe mechanical and electromagnetic
stresses and their interplay, they do not include the effect of electromechanical stresses in
formulating boundary conditions at a field discontinuity. Arguments in Panofsky and Phillipss
2
The virial is the time rate of change of the moment of inertia of a vortical plasma cloud (plasmoid). A necessary
and sufficient condition for stability of the plasmoid is that the time-integrated average of its virial is zero. This
implies that the plasmoid can assume its original shape any number of times, and cannot become uniformly
unbounded as time increases indefinitely. This is impossible for real plasmoids, which can have finite lifetimes.
Analysis of the virial and its time rate of change are important for determining short-term- and near-stability of
plasmoids
7
.
9
book also take great care to treat electromagnetic energy and momentum rigorously, but also
exclude mechanical stresses in boundary analyses. These texts really cant be faulted. Their main
thrust is toward understanding of the electromagnetic field.
Including mechanical momentum transfers and boundary stresses alongside electromagnetic
stress leads to the speculation that a spatially bounded spherical plasmoid could arise in nature
without violating any known laws of physics. Similar logic can be applied to fluid motions that
are not spherical. The vector Helmholtz equation, 0
2 2
+ V V , which dually describes
Beltrami vortices and time-harmonic electromagnetics, can be formally solved for boundary
conditions on any regular surface of any size. It remains to be seen whether the analysis
applicable to spherical plasmoids can be extended to other surfaces.
Another area where material stresses may affect boundary conditions is in the calculation of
radar scattering from high-speed objects. In most cases high-speed objects have surfaces heated
to the point of plasma formation of the surrounding air. The motion of plasma over a surface,
with resultant stresses, and the fact that microwaves can couple to the moving plasma may lead
to unexpected surface currents in response to radar pulses. The full meaning of this can be
appreciated when it is realized that radar-evading coatings on high-speed objects are designed
with computer programs assuming vacuum conditions at the outer boundaries of the flying
objects.
As a final example, the calculation of conformal electronics (antennas, IC's, etc.) on
electromechanically active substrates, such as quartz, should take into account the mechanical
stresses when formulating the boundary conditions for Maxwell's equations. Although the
speculation is that the differences are not large if mechanical stresses are ignored, it remains a
testable hypothesis that they are not.
The examples given in previous sections did not cover all the possible cases. It is left to the
reader, for example, to use the steps in the given prescription to derive familiar expressions for
the magnitude of a charge layer at the surface of a conductor, in the presence of an electric field,
without resorting to pillbox methods.
An astute reader may have realized that, unlike the purely mechanical case, treatments of
electromagnetic stress generally make no reference to strain, except where the electromagnetic
stresses produce mechanical forces. A different viewpoint will now be put forward that broadens
the concept of strain. Just as there is a mechanical component as well as an electromagnetic of
total stress, it is possible to define correspondent components of strain.
Define strain to be a reaction to stress, and stress to be an application of forces and fields. A
generalized (Classical Physics) definition of mechanical and electromagnetic strains, which is
consistent with the usual definition of mechanical stress is the following:
The mechanical component of reaction to stress is deformation (which includes fracture)
and/or momentum transfer to material.
10
The electromagnetic component of reaction to stress is the appearance of charges and/or
currents and/or momentum transfer to the electromagnetic field.
In other words, it is not inconsistent to think of charge, current and waves to also be strain
reactions to generalized stresses. Generalized strains, then, manifest themselves in measurable
geometric/energetic displacements, which are known by different names according to how they
are measured. Nothing really new has been said, but a different way of thinking about the
intimate connection between Classical Mechanics and Classical Electromagnetism is achieved.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Ideas in this note were conceived some years ago while I was employed at the Phillips
Laboratory, at Edwards AFB in California. Much credit goes to Dr. Franklin Mead Jr. for his
kind hospitality at that time, his insightful comments, continuing encouragement, and ongoing
interest in this work.
REFERENCES
1. Smythe, W. R., Static and Dynamic Electricity, McGraw Hill, New York, 1968
2. Eringen, A. C., Mechanics of Continua, Robert E. Krieger Publishing Co., Melbourne, Florida,
1989
3. Stratton, J. A., Electromagnetic Theory, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1941
4. Panofsky, W. K. H., and M. Phillips, Classical Electricity and Magnetism, Addison-Wesley,
Reading, Massachusetts, 1955
5. Richtmeyer, R. D. and K. W. Morton, Difference Methods for Initial-Value Problems,
Interscience, New York, 1967
6. Pai, Shih-I., Modern Fluid Mechanics, Van Nostrand, New York, 1981
7. Nachamkin, J., Force-Free Time-Harmonic Plasmoids, Phillips Laboratory Report PL-TR-92-
3044, Phillips Laboratory, Propulsion Directorate, Air Force Materiel Command, Edwards Air
Force Base, 1992
8. Lamb, H., Hydrodynamics, Dover, New York, 1993
9. Schmidt, G., The Virial Theorem for Plasmas, Phys. Fluids, 3, 481 (1960)
11
10. Gerjouy, E. and R. C. Stabler, Self-Confinement of Plasmas, Phys. Fluids, 7, 920 (1968)
11. Liboff, R. L., and T-J Lie, Plasma Virial and Equations of State for a Plasma, Phys. Fluids,
11, 1943 (1968)
12. Singer, S., The Nature of Ball Lightning, Plenum, New York, 1971
12