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Magnetic Amplifiers

A magnetic amplifier is a device which controls the power delivered from an a.c. source by employing a controllable non linear reactive elements or circuit generally interposed in series with the load. The power required to control the reactive element or circuit is made for less than the amount of power controlled; and hence power amplification is achieved. The non-linear reactive element is a saturable reactor. When used in a combination with a set of high-grade rectifiers, it exhibits power amplification properties in the sense that small changes in control power result in considerable changes in output power. The basic component of a magnetic amplifier, as mentioned above, is the saturable reactor. It consists of a laminated core of some magnetic material. The hysteresis loop of the reactor core is a narrow and steep one. A schematic diagram of a simple saturable core reactor with control winding and a.c. winding wound on two limbs. The control winding having a number of turns, Na.c. is fed with d.c. supply. By varying the control current, it is possible to largely vary the degree of saturation of the core. The other winding, called the a.c. winding or gate winding having a number of turns, Na.c. is fed from an a.c. source, the load being connected in series with it. The property of the reactor which makes it behave as a power amplifier is its ability to change the degree of saturation of the core when the control winding mmf (magneto motive force i.e., ampere turns), established by d.c. excitation, is changed. The a.c. power supply will have high impedance if the core is unsaturated and the varying values of lower impedances as the core is increasingly saturated. When the core is

completely saturated, the impedance of the a.c. winding becomes negligibly small and the full a.c. voltage appears across the load. Small values of current through the control winding, which has a large number of turns, will determine the degree of saturation of the core and hence change the impedance of the output circuit and control the flow of current through the load. By making the ratio of control winding turns to the a.c. winding turns large, an extremely high value of output current can be controlled by a very small amount of control current, The saturable core reactor circuit shown in Fig. has certain serious disadvantages. The core gets partially desaturated in the half-cycle in which the a.c. winding mmf opposes the control winding mmf. This difficulty is overcome by employing a rectifier in the output circuit as shown in Fig. Here the desaturating (damagnetising) effect by the halfcycle of the output current is blocked by the rectifier. On the other hand, the output and control winding mmfs aid each other to effect saturation in the half-cycle in which current passes through the load, thus making the reactor a self-saturating magnetic amplifier. Another difficulty that is experienced is that a high voltage is induced in the control winding due to transformer action. In order that this voltage is unable to send current to the d.c. circuit a high inductance should be connected in series with the control winding. This, however, slows down the response of the control system and hence the overall system. The saturable core is generally made of a saturable ferromagnetic material. For magnetic amplifiers of lower ratings usual transformer type construction using silicon steel (3 to 3.5 per cent Si) is used. Use of high quality nickel-iron alloy materials, however , makes possible much higher performance amplifiers of smaller size and weight. In order to realize the advantages of these materials, use is made of toroidal core configuration.

Surface Mount Technology


Surface mount technology is an easiest and prefect form of mounting components in Printed Circuit Boards. It entails making reliable interconnections on the board at great speeds, at reduced cost. To achieve these, SMT needed new types of surface mount components, new testing techniques, new assembling technique, new mounting techniques and a new set of design guidelines. SMT is completely different from insertion mounting. The difference depends on the availability and cost of surface mounting elements. Thus the designer has no choice other than mixing the through hole and surface mount elements. At every step the surface mount technology calls for automation with intelligence. Electronic products are becoming miniature with improvements in integration and interconnection on the chip itself, and device to device (DtoD) interconnections. Surface Mount Technology (SMT) is a significant contributor to DtoD interconnection costs. In SMT, the following are important 1. D-to-D interconnection costs. 2. Signal integrity and operating speeds. 3. Device- to-substrate interconnection methods. 4. Thermal management of the assembled package. D-to-D interconnection costs have not decreased as much as that of the ICs. A computer-on-a-chip costs less than the surrounding component interconnections. The problem of propagation delay, which is effectively solved at the device level, resurfaces as interconnections between the devices are made.

The modified new IC packages, having greater integration of functions, less in size and weight, and smaller in lead pitch, dictate newer methods of design, handling, assembly and repair. This has given new directions to design and process approaches, which are addresses by SMT.Currently, D-to-D interconnections at the board level are based on soldering-the method of joining the discrete components. The leads of the components are inserted in the holes drilled as per the footprint, and soldered.In the early decades, manual skills were used to accomplish insertion as well as soldering, as the component sizes were big enough to be handled conveniently. There have been tremendous efforts to automate the method of insertion of component leads to their corresponding holes, and solder them en-mass. The leads always posed problems for auto-insertion. The tendency of Americans against using manual, skilled labour resulted in the emergence of SMT, which inherits with it automation as precondition for success.

STREAM CONTROL TRANSMISSION PROTOCOL 02


There is an increasing need for internetworking between telephone and computer networks. Applications such as Voice over IP (VoIP) and the deployment of the 3rd Generation mobile telephony networks, make this integration a necessity. The Signaling Transport (SIGTRAN) working group of the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) is the one in charge of the design of the standards needed to make this internetworking possible. The primary purpose of this working group is addressing the transport of packetbased Public Switched Telephone Networks (PSTN) signaling over IP networks, taking into account functional and performance requirements of the PSTN signaling. Among the multiple standards that have been defined by SIGTRAN there is one new reliable transport protocol, the Stream Control Transmission Protocol (SCTP). SCTP is the evolution of a previous transport protocol, called the MultiNetwork Datagram Transmission Protocol (MDTP), highly based on TCP. SCTP has several new features that make it more suitable for PSTN signaling transport than TCP. SCTP can take advantage of a multihomed host using all the IP addresses the host owns. SCTP avoids a very simple attack that affects TCP, the so called SYN attack. This new protocol also provides a mechanism to prevent an application using SCTP from the so-called Head-Of-Line (HOL) blocking by using streams. Moreover, many features that are optional in TCP have been including in the basic specifications of SCTP, such as the Selective

Acknowledgements, the ability to tell about the receipt of Duplicate Datagrams or the support for Explicit Congestion Notification (ECN). On the whole, SCTP has many advantages over TCP and very few drawbacks, and we can expect that, apart from being used for signaling transport, SCTP will replace TCP in the Internet in the future. However, that will not happen overnight. Moreover, SCTP and TCP implementations share resources equally (as they have the same congestion avoidance algorithms). This behavior is highly desired to facilitate a gradual conversion of applications to use SCTP instead of TCP, making easier

Threats of HEMP and HPM


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In the 1980s, people feared neutron bombs that could kill everyone but leave buildings, roads, and cars intact. Today, we should fear a different kind of nuclear threat that can instantaneously destroy power grids, electronic systems, and communications along an entire coast but spare people. The Electro Magnetic Pulse (EMP) effect was first observed during the early testing of high altitude airburst nuclear weapons. The effect is characterized by the production of a very short (hundreds of nanoseconds) but intense electromagnetic pulse, which propagates away from its source with ever diminishing intensity, governed by the theory of electromagnetism. The Electro Magnetic Pulse is in effect an electromagnetic shock wave. This pulse of energy produces a powerful electromagnetic field, particularly within the vicinity of the weapon burst. The field can be sufficiently strong to produce short lived transient voltages of thousands of Volts (ie, kilo Volts) on exposed electrical conductors, such as wires, or conductive tracks on printed circuit boards, where exposed. The conceivable targets for an HPEM attack could be telecom, radio/TV networks, power system network, air traffic control, rail networks, banking and government administrative networks etc.. The technology base which may be applied to the design of electromagnetic bombs is both diverse, and in many areas quite mature. Key technologies which are extant in the area are explosively pumped Flux Compression Generators (FCG), explosive or propellant driven Magneto-Hydrodynamic (MHD) generators and a range of HPM devices, the foremost of which is the

Virtual Cathode Oscillator or Vircator. A wide range of experimental designs have been tested in these technology areas, and a considerable volume of work has been published in unclassified literature.

Electrical Impedance Tomography Or EIT

To begin with, the word tomography can be explained with reference to tomo and graphy; tomo originates from the Greek word tomos which means section or slice, and graphy refers to representation. Hence tomography refers to any method which involves reconstruction of the internal structural information within an object mathematically from a series of projections. The projection here is the visual information probed using an emanation which are physical processes involved. These include physical processes such as radiation, wave motion, static field, electric current etc. which are used to study an object from outside.Medical tomography primarily uses X-ray absorption, magnetic resonance, positron emission, and sound waves (ultrasound) as the emanation. Nonmedical area of application and research use ultrasound and many different frequencies of electromagnetic spectrum such as microwaves, gamma rays etc. for probing the visual information. Besides photons, tomography is regularly performed using electrons and neutrons. In addition to absorption of the particles or radiation, tomography can be based on the scattering or emission of radiation or even using electric current as well.When electric current is consecutively fed through different available electrode pairs and the corresponding voltage, measured consecutively by all remaining electrode pairs, it is possible to create an image of the impedance of different regions

of the volume conductor by using certain reconstruction algorithms. This imaging method is called impedance imaging. Because the image is usually constructed in two dimensions from a slice of the volume conductor, the method is also called impedance tomography and ECCT (electric current computed tomography), or simply, electrical impedance tomography or EIT.Electrical Impedance Tomography (EIT) is an imaging technology that applies time-varying currents to the surface of a body and records the resulting voltages in order to reconstruct and display the electrical conductivity and permittivity in the interior of the body. This technique exploits the electrical properties of tissues such as resistance and capacitance. It aims at exploiting the differences in the passive electrical properties of tissues in order to generate a tomographic image.Human tissue is not simply conductive. There is evidence that many tissues also demonstrate a capacitive component of current flow, and therefore, it is appropriate to speak of the specific admittance (admittivity) or specific impedance (impedivity) of tissue rather than the conductivity; hence, electric impedance tomography. Thus, EIT is an imaging method which maybe used to complement X-ray tomography (computer tomography, CT), ultrasound imaging, positron emission tomography (PET), and others.

Illumination With Solid State Lighting

A Light emitting diodes (LEDs) have gained broad recognition as the ubiquitous little lights that tell us that our monitors are on, the phone is off the hook or the oven is hot semiconductor. The basic principle behind the emission of light is that: When charge carrier pairs recombine in a semiconductor with an appropriate energy band-gap generates light. In a forward biased diode, little recombination occurs in the depletion layer. Most occurs in a few microns of either P- region or N region, depending on which one is lightly doped. LEDs produce narrow band radiations, with wave length determined by energy band of the semiconductor. Solid state electronics have replaced their vacuum tube predecessors for almost five decades. However in the next decade they will be brighter, more efficient and inexpensive enough to replace conventional lighting sources (i.e. incandescent bulbs, fluorescent tubes). Recent development in AlGaP and AlInGaP blue and green semiconductor growth technology have enabled applications where several single to several millions of these indicator LEDs can be packed together to be used in full color signs, automotive tail lambs, traffic lights etc. still the preponderance of applications require that the viewer has to look directly into the LED. This is not SOLID STATE LIGHTING Artificial lighting sources share three common characteristics: -They are rarely viewed directly: light from sources are

viewed as reflection off the illuminated object. - The unit of measure is kilo lumen or higher not mille lumen or lumen as it is incase of LEDs -Lighting sources are pre dominantly white with CIE color coordinates, producing excellent color rendering Today there is no such commercially using SOLID STATE LAMP However high power LED sources are being developed, which will evolve into lighting sources

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