January | February 2012 Feature title: Oxygenation in aquaculture

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FEATURE

FEATURE

Monitoring of oxygenation
Measurement of oxygen concentration in water usually takes place by use of an oxygen electrode, which was developed by Prof. Leland Clark in 1956. This basically measures an electric current, which is based on the reduction of oxygen at the cathode: O2 + 2H+ + 4e2 0HWhereas at the

Oxygenation in aquaculture
by Pavlos Makridis, Nils Hovden and Martin Gausen, Storvic Ltd, Scotland, Uk

Figure 2. A schematic diagram showing the respiratory pump. Water entering the mouth is further led by suction to the gill cavity and passes thereby through the gills. Opening and closing of the mouth and the opercular valve ensure that water flows in one direction.

until a stable value is established. In the case of a sensor mounted at a stable point, the measurements are of little value, in the case of standing waters or a container of water with low current. The Clark type of oxygen sensor requires a current of at least five cm/s to function properly. In the case of currents in cages as shown in Table three, this value is not so easy to achieve, and stirring is necessary. To sum up, in the case of manual measurement, this type of electrode can function well, whereas if the sensor is mounted at a fixed point, the issue of current speed becomes an important issue. The Clark-type of oxygen sensor - electrode requires frequent replacement of electrolyte and membrane, and frequent calibration. A relatively

ry air consists of approximately 21 percent oxygen, 78 percent nitrogen and one percent argon. In addition to these gases there is also carbon dioxide at a concentration of 0.04 percent, which despite its low level is physiologically important for all living organisms.

Temperature has a major impact in relation to oxygenation of fish or other animals: on one hand the metabolic rate of the animals increases (as long as the increase in temperature is within the tolerance limits of the cultured animal), and on the other hand the solubility of oxygen in water gets In comparison with air, oxygen content lower. In other words, at higher temperature, the in water bodies, which are in equilibrium demand for oxygen gets higher, while the oxygen with the atmosphere, is considerably lower. available decreases. There is a variability of Another factor that reduces solubility of atmospheric the solubility of oxygen in water in Table 1: Solubility gases in water. Oxygen is addition to increased temperature coefficient of oxygen in about twice as soluble as is the presence of dissolved salts. water expressed as mL nitrogen, but carbon dioxide The presence of salt ions reduces per liter per mm Hg as a is in its turn 30 times more the ability of gases to dissolve in function of salinity (ppt) and temperature at extreme soluble than oxygen. The water. Oxygen is therefore less temperature and salinity to concentration of oxygen in soluble in seawater compared demonstrate the effect of the water and air is 0.007 liter/ with freshwater. As shown in two factors. liter and 0.209 liter/liter, Table 1, temperature has a much 5 ppt 35 ppt respectively. This means stronger effect on oxygen solubilthat the oxygen content in ity than salinity, as at high tem5oC 54.7 44.9 water is approximately 30 perature solubility decreases by times lower than oxygen in more than 30 percent, whereas 25oC 36.4 30.7 an equal volume of air. at high salinity solubility decreases Besides oxygen concentration, two more by 16-18 percent. We noted before that solubility factors are physiologically important in rela- of gases is influenced by the solids dissolved in it. tion to physical constraints of gases and It is important to underline here, that the ultimately the way land-living animals and solubility of each gas is not influenced by the aquatic animals have evolved to obtain other gases dissolved in the water within oxygen in their respective environments: physiological limits. This means that for examdensity of medium and diffusion. Air is the ple the solubility of oxygen is not directly medium for land-living animals and it is influenced by the amount of carbon dioxide about 800 times lighter than water. In addi- dissolved in it. tion oxygen diffuses much faster from air to living tissues in comparison with oxygen Respiration in fish dissolved in water. In fish, gills are the respiratory organs. The Analysis of all these factors makes it gills are highly perforated with thin blood clear that respiration is a much easier task capillaries, which get loaded with as much for land-living animals than for aquatic oxygen as possible from the water. The gills animals. The only disadvantage of air- are enclosed in the gill cavity. The anatomical breathing animals in relation to breathing arrangement of the gills is such that blood is the loss of water during breathing, which flows in the gill lamellae in the opposite direcis not an issue of course in the case of tion than the flow water. The counter-current aquatic animals. principle is therefore applied which results in

Oxygen content in the water is influenced by temperature, salinity

the pattern of flow of the blood, such that blood just before it leaves the gill lamellae is in contact with highly oxygenated water (see figure), and it is possible to increase further its oxygen content. There are two basic mechanisms to achieve a flow of water over the gill surface. The first mechanism is the respiratory pump composed by the mouth cavity and the opercular cavity. The mode of action of the respiratory pump in fish is not continuous, but takes place in pulses composed of two phases. The respiratory pump consists of two compartments: the mouth cavity (buccal cavity) and the gill cavity (opercular cavity). The gills separate these two compartments. So water passing from mouth to gill cavity has to pass through the gills. Oxygen requirements are influenced by species cultured, temperature, fish size and feeding regime. Fish, like other animals, consume food and break it down to more simple compounds. The dual purpose of metabolism is thus the gain of energy (catabolism) and the build-up of tissues (anabolism) by polymerisation of more simple compounds, which becomes visible in the form of growth. The anabolic processes besides building stones require as well energy. Production of energy takes place through oxidation and requires in the case of fish the presence of oxygen which is extracted from the water surrounding the fish, and acquired through the gills as described earlier. If a substrate

is utilised for the production of energy, it is fully oxidised and the final products are: energy, carbon dioxide and water. All these processes are included in the term of metabolism. The rate of metabolism is influenced by a large array of abiotic and biotic factors (see Table 2). From all these factors it should be underlined here that that activity is the most potent factor. Oxygen consumption is proportional to the metabolic rate, and it is therefore a common approach to measure metabolic rate by measuring oxygen consumption. Temperature has a strong impact on oxygen requirements as it affects the activity of enzymatic processes. Besides the enzymatic processes, temperature has an effect on the ability of hemoglobin to bind oxygen and the solubility of membranes. Another important effect of temperature on metabolism is related to the amount of water bound by proteins. Water molecules are bound to polar groups in the protein molecule, and the amount of water is influenced by temperature. The effect of temperature is normally described by a Q10 value, which expresses the multiplication factor when temperature is increased by 10oC. Q10 receives a value between two and three in most cases. When calculating the need for oxygenation it is important to know the average size of the fish comprising the population in question. As a general rule, per kg of biomass, smaller fish require much higher quantities of oxygen than larger fish.

anode electrode silver fells out of solution: Ag Ag+ + eThe sensitivity of this type of oxygen sensor depends on the area of the cathode and thickness of the membrane of the sensor, which may limit the diffusion of oxygen to the cathode. It becomes evident from the equations above that the sensor in one way consumes oxygen, which is the parameter it actually measures. To circumvent this practical problem, the sensor should be in motion in relation to the water. In practical terms, this means that if the measurement is taken manually by a technician, this person should shake smoothly the sensor in the water

Figure 1. Schematic diagram showing the blood flow in secondary gill lamellae which are the actual site of gas exchange in fish. Water flows in the opposite direction than blood optimizing the extraction of oxygen from water to the blood in this counter current pattern of flow.

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30 | InternatIonal AquAFeed | January-February 2012

January-February 2012 | InternatIonal AquAFeed | 31

FEATURE ration of volume to external surface decreases. This means that the content of large bubbles has fewer chances to dissolve in the water that the same amount of gas in small bubbles. It is needless to point out here that both in the case of oxygenation in tanks and in cages oxygen that reaches the surface Factors that may be influenced of water and burst is a loss for by insufficient oxygenation Figure 3. Dissolved oxygen concentration outside It has been documented that the single the farmer as it enters the atmosand within a cage. The difference in oxygen level most important factor for increased growth and phere and is of no use for the fish indicated an exchange rate between about 3-6 times/hour. productivity in aquaculture is to maintain sufficient farmed. If you thereby oxygenate oxygen saturation level over time in the water your farm and notice the water where the species grow. At saturation level below boiling due to gas injected in the water, you by the bubbles and thereby more time to 85 percent, feed utilisation begins to fall and the should take it as warning that large amounts of achieve oxygenation over the water masses. fish is increasingly vulnerable to sickness and, in gas are getting wasted. Another disadvantage of large bubbles Cages the end, mortality: is that they rise fast in the water column to - at 75% saturation reduced appetite starts to There is a widespread belief among farmers reach the surface and thereby remain for a that oxygen demands of fish farmed in cages appear reduced time in the water reducing further at sea are under all situations covered by the - at 60% saturation increased mortality is shown the ability of oxygen to dissolve. A further currents existing at sea. It is easy however to - at 40% saturation there is no appetite among fish disadvantage of large bubbles is that large determine at first that oxygen concentration - at 30% saturation there is massive mortality. bubbles show a tendency inside the cages is lower than the oxygen Feed is composed of Table 2: Factors that influence to merge and thereby concentration a few meters outside the cage three main groups of foodmetabolic rate and consequently becoming even larger (Figure 3). This difference is powered by two stuffs: protein, fat, and carbothe oxygen requirements in fish. increasing the problem. hydrates. The amount of oxyfactors: (a) the consumption of oxygen within From the description the cage, and (b) the ability of the current to gen needed to metabolize a Abiotic factors Biotic factors above it becomes clear that replace the depleted oxygen with the fresh gram of food differs for these ideal oxygenation involves supplied brought by water rich in oxygen. The three groups of foodstuffs. Fat Temperature Activity level the formation of small current in the area of the cages is much lower gives more than double the Salinity Weight bubbles, which rise slowly than the current outside the cages (Table 3). energy released during the Oxygen Oxygen debt in the water column, and catabolism of protein and carIt is obvious that the work of the currents Ammonia Stress result in efficient oxygena- is hindered in the case of cages placed in the bohydrates and at the same Acidity Starvation tion of the water as a maxi- sea by the net surrounding the cage. This net time requires a proportionally mal interface of gas-liquid in the case of most farms in the Mediterranean increased amount of oxygen Season Quality of feed is provided. These tiny gas is double to hinder the escape of fish. In addito achieve this process. It is logical to assume that fish consuming a bubbles give a milky appearance to the water. tion, the size of fish is smaller than for example A second important factor is the distribution is the case in salmon farming, so mesh size is fatty diet will have higher oxygen requirements compared with fish consuming a larger propor- of the gas in the cage or the tank. In the case on average smaller than in salmon farming. An tion of carbohydrates. It has been of circular tanks, these are not so deep so the additional problem that arises is the fouling postulated that decreased oxy- bubbles have a short distance to cover before of nets with micro- and macroalgae which gen levels may have an impact they get dissolved so the need for small bubbles reduces considerably the renewal of water and on resistance of fish to infectious is quite high. On the other hand, as the water is causes further problem in the cages. diseases (viral and bacterial dis- well mixed compared with other systems a few In the case of farming of gilthead seabream eases), as in the case of channel catfish, Atlantic areas of gas injection are sufficient to provide fish and seabass, production is such that there is a salmon and other species. Increased infestation of the necessary oxygen. peak of the total biomass towards late summer In earth ponds or in raceways it is impor- and autumn. The large biomasses in the onparasites has also been observed. tant to inject oxygen in the area close to the growing cages results in increased demand for entrance of the raceway so oxygen has higher oxygen, where addition of oxygen in the cages Basic principles in oxygenation Injection of a gas in aquaculture is governed chances to be utilised by the fish population. by natural currents may not be sufficient, as the by certain principles which will be described here In the case of fish cages, oxygen has to be temperature is still quite high in autumn. This type of oxygenation may be applied in order to make easy to perceive the limitations distributed over a large area. The gas can be injected at a larger depth than is usual in either after manual registration of low oxygen and possibilities related to oxygenation. An important factor that influences efficient the case of tanks or ponds, so there is more concentration in the cage or after continuous injection of a gas in water is the size of bubbles distance to be covered in the water column monitoring by an automatic system. An automatic system for monitoring as they exit the diffuser. Small of oxygen level in the cages size show several advantages Table 3: Parallel monitoring of current velocity at surface outside a farm and ensures that low levels at any in related to larger ones. If gas inside a cage. time of the day or night will is divided to small bubbles the result in an alarm procedure, contact surface with water is Current outside farm (cm/s) 2-4 4-6 6-8 8-10 10-12 able to result in addition of much higher than in the case Current inside farm (cm/s) 1.7 1.7 2.1 2.2 2.2 oxygen within a reasonable of large bubbles. In a sphere, Reduction of current (%) 44 67 70 76 80 time period. as the diameter increases the new technology has been developed based on the presence of a fluorescent compound in the sensor. This methodology does circumvents several of the technical disadvantages of the previous method as it does not consume oxygen and stirring is therefore not necessary. These optic oxygen sensors are more expensive to purchase, but on the other hand have a lower maintenance cost.
32 | InternatIonal AquAFeed | January-February 2012

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