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College Child
Carlo Magno
Robina Marie Ko
Parental Involvement 2
College
De LaSalle University
Abstract
The present study investigated the parental involvement of the Filipino mothers and
fathers on their child’s school-related behaviors. The study made use of Tan’s
involvement of school-related activities for a grade school child and a college child.
The pattern of differences was investigated using t-test for two independent
showed that mother’s are significantly more loving and permissive for the grade
school child while fathers are significantly more procreator and determinative for
the grade school child, p<.05. The model of Umali-Razon are more fit for
involvement with a grade school child while Tan’s model is more appropriate for a
college child. The characteristics for mothers’ and fathers’ are closely linked for the
In the past two decades, a great deal of research has shown the
involvement has been linked with a lower likelihood of dropping out of school
& Baker, 1987; The National Institute of Child Health and Human
Development Early Child Care Research Network in the United States, 2004).
Parental Involvement
educational outcomes for the child. Studies report consistent findings that
Dempsey & Sandler, 1997). In support to this, a study by Jones and Savage
school and children's achievement. Jones and Savage (1972) found that most
learning and school success (e.g., Chavkin, 1993; Eccles & Harold, 1993;
Epstein,1989, 1991,1994; Hess & Holloway, 1984; Hobbs et al., 1984; U.S.
The forms of parental involvement has been an important part of the current
effort to understand why parents choose to become involved and why their
The roles of parents in their child’s education includes both (a) the
expectations (explicit and implicit) that parents and those in their significant
groups hold for their behaviors in relation to children's schooling and (b) the
generally expected to protect children from harm, for example, on the way to
Dempsey & Sandler, 1997); for example, mothers often experience stronger
issues as major disciplinary action (e.g., Eccles & Harold, 1994). This
(Epstein, 1995), direct assistance with homework (Epstein & Sanders, 2002),
Parents in all cultures draw their parenting practices from the culture
that surrounds them. However, cultures vary in the extent to which parents
are allowed to vary the cultural socialization theme (Arnett, 1995). Specific to
cultural norms associated with young children, Filipino infants are given
constant attention and care, with few demands based on the belief that
conform and the prevailing cultural beliefs (Arnett, 1995). As children grows
older, they develop their own thoughts, decisions, less supervision, expected
& Ilada-Andres, 1987; Medina, 1991; Santos & Chan, 2004). Parenthood
places adults in the position of acting as models for their children, which is
likely to cause many of them to exercise impulse control and because they
Parental Involvement 6
values are taught to Filipino children at an early age (Santos, & McCollum,
2007).
Fathers
father-absent families were most probable to drop out of high school. On the
other hand, proof those fathers appear to put forth minimal impact or exert
very little effort on their offspring has been presented (Crockett, Eggebeen &
also been shown by various investigations. Belsky and Volling (1991) found
that increased levels of marital conflict and ambivalence were related to less
According to Tan (1989) there are four types of father who vary in
their parenting. These four types are the procreator father, dilettante
father, determinative father, and generative father. Tan then made a grid
characterizing the activity of the father with his child and his affect.
Mothers
mother is still ranked as the primary caretaker of her children (Mendez &
Jocano, 1979; Licuanan, 1979; Lagmay, 1983; Mindoza et al., 1984; UP CHE,
1958). Mothers are usually responsible for many concerns of the child. The
mother does most of the decisions in the child’s daily routine, schooling, and
health (UP CHE, 1985). Sycip (1982) refer to the infamous “double burden”
Women are traditionally defined as the keepers of the home and… all
Today’s economic conditions decree that they also go out and take the
the same time, they have not been relieved of their other duties. It
the other hand there is also strictness and severity (Lagmay, 1983). Espina
than hostile, but are more controlling than permissive (Umali-Razon, 1981).
Type of Description
Mother
Control High expectations of compliance to parental rules and
directions, an open dialogue about those rules and
behaviors, and a child-centered approach characterized
by warm, positive affect.
Permissiv Having few behavioral expectations for the child and is
e characterized by warm affect. Parents are nurturing and
accepting, but non-demanding. This type of parent
simply wants the child to like him or her at the end of
the day and will do anything the child requests to do.
Love Type affinity or natural affection felt among members of
a group bound by common ancestry or blood ties, or
care. This type of parent shows total support and
concern for the child.
Autonomy Typified by immunity from arbitrary exercise of
authority. This kind of mother give their children
personal independence to have self-direction in life..
age as their child develops to adolescence (Hagestad, 1987; Van Wel, Ter
Bogt, & Raaijmakers, 2002). This implies that there are marked differences
as to how parents get involved with their children in the grade school and
those in the college level. There are also studies that describe the pattern
Hardaway, 2007; Hoover, 2007; Love, 2008). The role identity theory
(Buhl, 2000; Smollar & Youniss, 1989). The transition includes staying at
home to leaving the parental home, from being taken care of to making
relationship between parents and their children becomes less close and
fathers by Tan (1989) and Umali-Razon (1981) hold true for parents with
children in grade school and college; and whether (2) there is a difference in
the involvement of mothers and fathers for their children in these levels. (3)
Method
Participants
Parental Involvement 11
There were 1171 parents who participated in the study. There were 335
mothers of a grade school child and the other 251 are mothers of a college
student, 335 fathers of a grade school child and 250 fathers of a college
student. It was made consistent across the participants that both parents
selected are working and have finished at least higher education. The age of
Instruments
response format. The items reflect how different parents are involved in their
social gatherings, and development of study habits. For the Father’s School
factor and a total of 120 items. For the Mother’s School Related Behavior
love, and autonomy with 30 items for each factor and a total 120 items.
the items were relevant, irrelevant, or needs revision. The items were pilot
tested to 450 parents (225 fathers and 225 mothers). The initial internal
consistency of the overall scale using Cronbach’s alpha is .98 for the MSRBQ
Parental Involvement 12
and .99 for the FSRBQ. The internal consistency of the subscales for the
generative=.86) were also high. Factor analysis was also conducted for each
scale in a measurement model where each items were cross-loaded for each
of the factors. The placement of the items was based on its significant paths
for a construct.
Procedure
The final form of the FSRBQ and MSRBQ was constructed and it was
administer to 586 parents. Purposive sampling was used where the parents
college level. Since majority of the parents were working, the parents who
are not working or full time in the household were not included to have a
that a study was being conducted to construct and test a scale that is being
developed. Once the parent agreed to participate they were given the scale
questionnaires, the parents were debriefed about the purpose of the study.
Data Analysis
t-test for Two Independent Samples. The t-test for two independent
samples was used to compare the parents with a grade school child and
parents with a college child on each of the subscales of the FSRBQ for fathers
Parental Involvement 13
and MSRBQ for mothers. The level of significance is set at .05 margin of
error.
Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA). The CFA was used to test whether
enables to test whether the data obtained fits the measurement model. The
goodness of fit indices was compared whether the data fits better for
Two multidimensional planes were generated each for fathers and mothers
with a total of four MDS analysis: Fathers with a grade school child, fathers
with a college student, mothers with a grade school child, and mothers with
a college student. The distances of the subscales were compared for a grade
school child and a college child to account for further differences in the
produced was also obtained to determine whether the data fits the
dimension produced.
Results
The means for parental involvement for grade school and college
student were compared for each subscale of the MSRBQ and FSRBQ. The
subscales of the two measures were also confirmed through CFA. The
Parental Involvement 14
distances of the subscales of the MSRBQ and FSRBQ for grade school and
When the mothers involvement were compared for their grade school
child and college child, there were significant differences for permissive,
(M=2.62) and autonomy (M=2.68) was higher for college and loving
p<.05, but not for dillitante and generative. The father being procreator
(M=2.40) and determinative (M=2.53) was significantly higher for the grade
school child.
variable. The goodness of fit of each measurement model for grade school
and high school ere compared to determine the best fitting model.
school child, all subscales had a significant paths to one latent variable,
p<.05 (see Figure 1). This means that controlling permissive, loving and
autonomy are valid constructs of the MSRBQ. The same results were
obtained when the scale was tested for mothers’ involvement with their
college child where all paths are significant, p<.05 (see Figure 2). This means
that the subscales for mothers’ involvement hold true for involvement with
Figure 1
Figure 2
When the two measurement model was tested for goodness of fit, the
data for mothers’ involvement for the grade school child fits better as
compared to the mothers’ involvement for the college child. The obtained
residual (.092) had smaller values for the mothers’ involvement for a grade
school child. It is also consistent for the noncentrality fit indices where higher
values were obtained for the mothers’ involvement for a grade school child.
The same pattern was observed for the single sample fit indices (see
Appendix A).
When the model for the fathers involvement was tested for the grade
school child, all subscales had significant paths in one latent variable, p<.05.
The same significant paths were obtained for each subscale for the fathers
involvement for a college child, p<.05. This shows that the susbscales for the
Parental Involvement 16
FSRBQ holds true for fathers’ involvement for the grade school and college
child.
Figure 3
Figure 4
had an adequate goodness of fit. However there is a pattern that the model
favors fathers’ involvement for college students. Lower values for chi-square
(.089) were obtained for the fathers in involvement in college child data. For
the noncentrality measures, higher values were consistently obtained for the
fathers’ involvement in college child data. Similar pattern was observed for
the single sample fit indices where fathers’ involvement for the college child
similarity of the variables. For each MDS analysis, a two dimension plane was
selected because the subscales of Tan (1989) and Umali-Razon (1981) runs
in two dimensions: Activity and affect. This was further proven in the analysis
because stress levels for each MDS model had low values. The stress level of
each MDS model indicates goodness of fit of the data for the selected
Figure 5
For the involvement of mothers for their grade school child, loving and
The pattern changes for mothers’ involvement for the college child. This
time, all four subscales were separated each in its own quadrant. Controlling
The subscale on loving separated with permissiveness for the college data
(Eucledean distance=2.09).
Figure 6
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
Dimension 2
0.2
0.0
p ro c re a to r g e n e r a t iv e
-0 .2
-0 .4
-0 .6
d e t e r m in a t iv e
-0 .8
-1 .0
-1 .2 -1 .0 -0 .8 -0 .6 -0 .4 -0 .2 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
D im e n s io n 1
S c a t t e r p lo t 2 D
F in a l C o n f ig u r a t io n , d im e n s io n 1 v s . d im e n s io n 2
1.2
g e n e r a t iv e
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
Dimension 2
0.2
p ro c re a to r
0.0
-0 .2
-0 .4 d illit a n t e
-0 .6 d e t e r m in a t iv e
-0 .8
-1 .2 -1 .0 -0 .8 -0 .6 -0 .4 -0 .2 0 .0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2
D im e n s io n 1
For the subscales of the FSRBQ for their grade school child, the
each. Procreator, generative and determinative are all positioned in the lower
region while dillitante in the highest region. The pattern completely changes
for when the scale was used for the fathers’ involvement in the college child.
Discussion
grade school and college . The mean for the mothers’ involvement
showed a difference only for permissive, loving and autonomy. For fathers,
differences were observed for the procreator type and determinative type. It
was found that mothers tend to be more permissive for the college son or
daughter because they are seen to be more independent in making their own
decisions and choices as compared with the child in grade school where the
mothers still assume more roles for the child (Mendez & Jocano, 1979;
However, the mother exhibits more loving care with the young child because
their increased involvement develops a bond with the child (Asprer, 1980).
The mother assumes extended roles to the child at an early age because of
for the personal and general aspects of the child’s life. This extended role
manifestations of loving . On the other hand, fathers seem to opt for the
procreator and determinative style with their child in the grade school.
affect of the father .attributed to his expectations of the child.. The father
when getting involved with his young child sets distinguished achievements
for the child to accomplish. This ideal expectation on the child is created
because the father lacks an emotional bond with the child (Keller, 2005). To
overcome this negative affect the father needs to know the child more. The
times by low activity (for procreator) and low activity (for determinative).
It was also found in the study that Tan’s fathering styles is better fit for
involvement with a child in the college level, on the other hand Umali-
Razon’s typology is better fit for involvement with a child in grade school..
Tan’s fathering style is very specific which points out negative affect and low
activity which captures exactly how a college child is treated. The low
activity and negative affect are not all characterizations of involvement but
loving, and autonomous are more appropriate for the grade school child.
are very much applicable for a younger child because these are their
immediate needs from the mother Because the mother provides these
Parental Involvement 22
school child but the subscales all separate for the involvement with a
collegiate child. For fathers involvement, the same pattern is observed where
procreator and generative are more similar for grade school and the
subscales all separate when the involvement is for a college. The pattern
occurring for both mothers and fathers involvement here is that two
involvement is for a grade school child but all subscales separate when the
overlap in dealing with a grade school child because the approach can be
express their love or a father who provides the child’s needs is his way of
parent is now more experienced in dealing with the child and acts
characteristics.
The pattern of differences for mother’s and father’s found in the study
and fathers. The present study was able to establish how these
college child.
Conclusion
changes in handling their grade school and college child. Mothers and
characteristics are more related in handling a grade school child but these
Recommendations
development of the child (ex. Preschool, grade school, high school, college).
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Parental Involvement 29
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Appendix A
Estimates
MSRBQ for Grade
School MSRBQ for College
Discrepancy Function 0.129 0.348
ML Chi-Square 43.178 86.565
Degrees of Freedom 2 2
RMS Standardized Residual 0.092 0.16
Noncentrality Indices
Population Noncentrality
Parameter 0.135 0.363
Steiger-Lind RMSEA Index 0.26 0.426
McDonald Noncentrality Index 0.935 0.834
Population Gamma Index 0.937 0.846
Adjusted Population Gamma
Index 0.683 0.232
Single Sample Fit Indices
Joreskog GFI 0.934 0.843
Joreskog AGFI 0.67 0.217
Akaike Information Criterion 0.177 0.412
Schwarz's Bayesian Criterion 0.269 0.525
Browne-Cudeck Cross Validation
Index 0.178 0.413
Independence Model Chi-Square 327.409 282.709
Parental Involvement 30
Independence Model df 6 6
Bentler-Bonett Normed Fit Index 0.868 0.694
Bentler-Bonett Non-Normed Fit
Index 0.616 0.083
Bentler Comparative Fit Index 0.872 0.694
James-Mulaik-Brett Parsimonious
Fit Index 0.289 0.231
Bollen's Rho 0.604 0.081
Bollen's Delta 0.873 0.699
Appendix B
Estimates
FSRBQ for Grade School FSRBQ for College
Discrepancy Function 0.222 0.143
ML Chi-Square 55.213 47.6
Degrees of Freedom 2 2
RMS Standardized
Residual 0.104 0.089
Noncentrality Fit
Indices
Population
Noncentrality
Parameter 0.13 0.187
Steiger-Lind RMSEA
Index 0.306 0.254
McDonald
Noncentrality Index 0.911 0.937
Population Gamma
Index 0.914 0.939
Adjusted Population
Gamma Index 0.572 0.696
Single sample Fit
Indices
Joreskog GFI 0.911 0.937
Joreskog AGFI 0.555 0.683
Akaike Information
Criterion 0.286 0.19
Schwarz's Bayesian
Criterion 0.282 0.399
Browne-Cudeck Cross
Validation Index 0.191 0.287
Independence Model
Chi-Square 307.122 345.888
Parental Involvement 31
Independence Model
df 6 6
Bentler-Bonett
Normed Fit Index 0.845 0.84
Bentler-Bonett Non-
Normed Fit Index 0.546 0.53
Bentler Comparative
Fit Index 0.849 0.843
James-Mulaik-Brett
Parsimonious Fit Index 0.282 0.28
Bollen's Rho 0.535 0.521
Bollen's Delta 0.851 0.845