SECTION ONE INTRODUCTION 1.

1 BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY Poverty is a multi faceted issue and a plague afflicting people all over the world. It is considered one of the symptoms or manifestations of underdevelopment and a permanent feature of human society. One of the daunting challenges confronting the world today (particularly

developing countries) is the high incidence of poverty. Poverty in Africa like in most regions of the world is somewhat paradoxical. This is so because, despite the upward trend in the average real growth rate, over the past five years, endemic poverty has persisted. And no other region in Africa currently present a gloomy picture of the continents economic position like the sub-Saharan region where the share of people living on less than one dollar a day exceeds that in the next poorest region, south Asia, by about 17 percent. The severity of poverty in the sub-continent,

accompanied

by

endemic

conflict,

diseases,

political

instability, corruption and mismanagement of resources have combined to undermine economic growth and

development as well as the fear of meeting the Millennium Development Goal (MDG), that is, of halving poverty by 2015. In Nigeria, poverty appears to be the greatest degrader of the economy, among other contemporary socio-

economic problems. The situation is however paradoxical when weighed against the fact that Nigeria, with her vast human and material resources has a large proportion of its population wallowing in endemic poverty. More worrisome is the fact that despite the efforts by successive

governments at various levels to improve the well-being of their people through various poverty reduction policies and programmes, the incidence of poverty is still high. In Borno State, poverty describes the deplorable living condition of individuals and communities in a state of economic and social deprivation. Poverty manifests itself

not only in economic deprivation but also in terms of the individuals inability to access basic social amenities. Thus, an individuals level of economic well being is determined and shaped by a complex array of economic and noneconomic factors such as political power, access to basic infrastructures, and utilities (electricity, transportation and water supply), access to social services such as education, health care and environmental protection. The individuals access to these services is in turn influenced by his level of economic power. By 1999 poverty in Borno state has assumed a

frightening dimension forcing down the living condition of the citizens to the lowest ebb. In a bid to stem the tide and devastating effects of poverty in the state, the

administration of Senator Ali Modu Sheriff established the Ministry of Poverty Alleviation and Youth Empowerment. Consequently, a lot of poverty alleviation strategies were implemented. The idea of poverty alleviation was received with high

hopes by the people especially given the speed with which the government created the Ministry of Poverty Alleviation and Youth Empowerment. Poverty alleviation programmes and strategies were seen as a means through which the government can revamp the economy and deal with the sufferings of the poor and downtrodden. With regards to the implementation and sustainability of the poverty alleviation strategies in the state, there are differing comments and opinions. Peoples perception on the implementation and sustainability of poverty alleviation strategies in Borno State will form the basis of this study

1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM The problem of poverty in Borno state has eaten deep into the fabric of the society. There is high rate of unemployment, standards of living have declined

tremendously, fast decline in the educational institutions and high rate of corruption in the bureaucracy. The economy has remained unchanged and the persistence of

poverty reflected in the overall quality of life of the citizens (John and Balami, 1999, Ibrahim, 2006). In Borno state, not only that income levels are much lower, the incidence of malnutrition, infant mortality and illiteracy is much higher. This is compounded by the lack of access to basic social amenities and infrastructures such as portable water, electricity, modern health facilities, good schools, 2006). More worrisome is the fact that, the poverty situation in the state is worsening and the human suffering is on the increase. This deteriorating posture calls to question the implementation cum sustainability of the poverty roads and communication facilities (Ibrahim,

alleviation strategies by the state government over the years. It is against this back drop that this study examines the peoples perception on the implementation and

sustainability of poverty alleviation strategies in Borno State.

1.3 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY The general objective of this study is to examine peoples perception on the implementation and

sustainability of poverty alleviation strategies in Borno State. The specific objectives are to; i. identify the poverty alleviation strategies in Borno state; ii. examine peoples perception on the implementation and sustainability of the poverty alleviation

strategies in Borno state; iii. examine peoples perception of the impact of poverty alleviation strategies in Borno State and iv. poffer policy options and in enhancing of the

implementation

sustainability

poverty

alleviation strategies in Borno state.

1.4 RESEARCH QUESTIONS This study will be guided by the following research

questions: iWhat are the peoples perception on the implementation and sustainability of poverty alleviation strategies on Borno state? iiWhat are the peoples perception on the implementation and sustainability of poverty alleviation strategies in Borno state? iiiHow do the people perceive the impact and problems of poverty alleviation strategies in Borno state? ivWhat policy options can enhance the

implementation and sustainability of poverty alleviation strategies in Borno state?

1.5 STATEMENT OF HYPOTHESIS The central hypothesis girding this research is: Ho: Poverty alleviation strategies in Borno state have not succeeded in reducing poverty.

1.6 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY The study is necessitated by the growing rate of poverty and suffering that have resulted to a very wide gap between the haves and the have nots. It will therefore appear a worthwhile exercise to undertake a study on the peoples perception on the implementation and sustainability of poverty alleviation strategies in Borno state. The study possesses some academic value and would be of interest to students, researchers, academics, government officials and the general public. It will be a contribution to knowledge and literature on poverty alleviation and a guide for further research. The study will be an eye opener on the peoples perception on the implementation and sustainability of poverty alleviation strategies in Borno state. This will give us a good understanding of the impact and or problems of the poverty alleviation strategies in the state.

It is hoped that the result obtained from the study will serve as a useful material in formulating and

implementing sustainable poverty alleviation strategies in Borno State.

1.7 SCOPE OF THE STUDY This study will essentially concentrate on the peoples perception on the implementation and sustainability of poverty alleviation strategies in Borno State. The study will cover the period 1999 to 2009. The choice of the period is as a result of three reasons. First, it was the period of return from military rule to democratic rule with much expectation from the populace. Second, it was the period the government established the Ministry of Poverty Alleviation and Youth Empowerment to curb poverty among the people. Third, the period is long enough to assess the success or otherwise of the implementation and sustainability of poverty alleviation strategies in the state.

For this study, emphasis will be on the perception of the people on the type of poverty alleviation strategies, impact and problems of implementation and

sustainability.

1.8 DEFINITION OF CONCEPTS This section clarifies concepts within the context of this research. These concepts are perception, implementation, sustainability and poverty. a) Perception: observation, interpretation in this study it refers to the and and

experience, of the

understanding implementation

sustainability of poverty alleviation strategies in Borno state by the people. b) Implementation: This refers to the execution or effectuation of the poverty alleviation strategies into action by the Borno state government. It is the translating of the poverty alleviation idea or plan into action.

c)

Sustainability: In this study it means existence, maintenance, and continuation of the poverty alleviation programmes in Borno State on a sustained basis.

d)

Poverty: Is a state where an individual is not able to cater adequately for his or her basis needs of food, clothing and shelter. One is poor if he or she is unable to meet social and economic obligations, lacks gainful employment, skills assets and self esteem; and has limited access to social and economic infrastructure such as education, health, potable water and sanitation; and consequently has limited chances of advancing his or her welfare to the limit of his or her capabilities.

1.9 PLAN OF WORK The study will be divided into five chapters. Chapter one will present the background of the study and the rational for the study. Chapter two will review

11

relevant literature on poverty and poverty alleviation. The chapter will also provide the theoretical foundation for the study. Chapter Three will discuss the

methodology and the study area. Here, population and sample selection, the instruments used to collect the data and the procedures used to analyze the data will be examined. Chapter four will present and analyse the data collected through the use of questionnaire and interview. It will further discuss the major findings and the policy implications of these findings. Chapter five will summarize the major findings, draw conclusion and make practical recommendations.

SECTION TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW This section is dedicated to the review of relevant literature and theoretical framework for the study. The works of authors and scholars on the concept, types, causes, perception and effects of poverty as well as the meaning of poverty alleviation, strategies and problems will be

reviewed. The System Theory and the Basic Needs Theory will be adopted as the theoretical framework for the study.

2.1 CONCEPT OF POVERTY The concept of poverty is familiar and yet difficult to explain. A search of the relevant literature shows that there is no general consensus on any meaningful definition of poverty. This is because poverty is multi-dimensional and affects many aspects of the human condition, including physical, moral and psychological. To this end, different criteria have been used to conceptualize poverty. Most economists follow the conventional view of poverty as a situation of low income or consumption. According to

13

Omoruyi (1987:48), poverty is the absence or lack of basic necessities of life including material wealth, commonplace regular flow of wage and income and inability to sustain oneself based on existing resources available. In such a state, the means of achieving minimum subsistence, health, education and comfort are absent. The concern here is with the individuals ability to be able to provide basic goods and services for himself (Amis and Rakodi, 1994:630). The above definition of poverty is often used for constructing one measure of poverty called, poverty line- a value of income or consumption necessary to purchase the minimum standard of nutrition and other necessitates of life. Accordingly, measured people are of considered living in poor of when their or

standard

terms

income

consumption is below the poverty line. Thus, the poverty line is a measure that separates the poor from the non-poor. Many other experts have conceptualized the poor as that portion of the population that is unable to meet basic daily nutritional needs. For example, the Food and Agricultural

Organization (FAO) identifies poverty as the inability to have a diet that meets 2100 calories a day (Rentlinger and Selowsky, 1997:146). Similarly, Aluko, (1995:88), defined poverty as the lack of command over basic consumption needs such as food, clothing and shelter. The third group sees poverty as a function of education, health, life expectancy, child mortality, etc. The German Government in 1992, stated that people affected by poverty are unable to lead a decent life and hence poverty means not having enough to eat, a high rate of infant mortality, a low life expectancy, low educational opportunities, poor drinking water, inadequate health care, unfit housing and a lack of active participation in decision-making processes (Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and

Development, 1992). Fourthly, another group of experts see poverty as a consequence of deprivation, lack of rights and exclusion from participating in political processes. Thus the poor are deprived of the opportunities of owning physical and

15

financial assets. They always experience general condition of deprivation whose dimensions include: social inferiority, isolation, humiliation, and insecurity. Thus, Sen (1987:221) defines poverty as the lack of certain capabilities, such as being able to participate with dignity in society. Similarity, Johnson (1989:107) describes poverty as a situation where the resources of individuals or families are inadequate to provide a society acceptable standard of living. Such lack of resources incapacitates the individual in protecting himself against social, economic and political deprivations. The above definitions of poverty implies that poverty has many dimensions, such as inadequate income, malnutrition, lack of access to social services, and lack of social and political status. However, the central theme in all the definitions is that poverty is a condition of barely viable human existence caused by very low income. It is a condition in which income is insufficient to meet subsistence needs. This implies that levels of living may be considerably lower than those that are deemed adequate standard of

living. Poverty hinges on varying living and social standards, thus, poverty must therefore be based upon comparative scales and standards of living. In other words, individuals, families and groups in the population can be said to be in poverty when they lack the resources to obtain the types of diet, participate in the activities and have the living condition and amenities which are customary in the societies to which they belong.

2.2 TYPES OF POVERTY There are various types of poverty, the first based on basic needs, is classified as absolute and relative poverty (UNDP, 1990, Schubert, 1994, Hemmer, 1994).

Absolute and Relative Poverty According to Hemmer (1994:66), absolute poverty

means inability to provide for physical subsistence to the

17

extent of being incapable of protecting, human dignity. Some of the items for physical subsistence include; food, clothing, shelter, portable water, health services, basic education, public transportation and work. One of the features of those who suffer absolute poverty is that their income is meager and as a result their marginal propensity to save is zero (Osuntogun 1998:11). Relative poverty refers to a person or household whose provision with goods is lower than that of other persons or households. Relative poverty therefore, does not necessarily mean that the persons concerned cannot lead a life that is worthy of human dignity. It merely states that because of the distribution structures in a society, certain economic subjects are disadvantaged to an unacceptable extent. Relative classification attempts to define poverty in relation to either average levels or societal norms (Schubert, 1994:31). Relative poverty can be subjective or objective. When the differences in income values of individuals are objectively determined and are described by value judgment

as excessive then this is a situation of objective relative poverty. If, however, such differences are perceived as being excessive irrespective of whether this is objectively measurable, there is a case of subjective relative poverty.

Conjunctural and Structural Poverty Based on individual circumstances, Hiffe (1987:92) distinguished between conjunctural/transient poverty and structural/chronic poverty. Conjunctural poverty is a

temporary phenomenon into which normally self sufficient individuals are thrown in a crisis. Its causes are more transitory and possibly more reversible. It is mainly due to natural disasters (e.g drought, floods, earth quake, etc), man-made disasters like wars, and environmental

degradation, and changes in domestic economic policies that may result in price changes, increased unemployment etc (Obadan, 1997:14). Chronic poverty is long-term or persistent. Its causes are more permanent and depend on a host of factors such as

19

limited productive resources, lack of skills for gainful employment, locational disadvantage, or endemic sociopolitical and cultural factors.

Urban and Rural Poverty Locationally and spatially, there is urban poverty and rural poverty. Urban slums and ghettos are usually

characterized by environmental degradation, inadequate welfare services and social deprivation, low per capital income, overcrowded accommodation, low level of education etc. Rural poverty is characterized by poor material

conditions in the rural areas: high rate of illiteracy, lack of infrastructures, lack of capital resources, high population growth rates, high levels of under employment and

unemployment, etc (Ekpene 2001:140).

2.3 CAUSES OF POVERTY Poverty has many causes, some of them very basic.

Some experts suggest, for instance, that the world has too many people, too few jobs, and not enough food. But such basic causes are quite intractable and not easily eradicated. In most cases, the causes and effects of poverty interact, so that what make people poor also creates conditions that keep them poor. According to Corbett (2008:2), primary factors that may lead to poverty include/ over population, the unequal distribution of resources in the world economy, inability to meet high standards of living and costs of living and inadequate education and unemployment opportunities. Others are environmental degradation, economic and

demographic trends, individual responsibility and welfare dependency. World Bank (1999) identified the main causes of poverty as: - Inadequate access to employment opportunities - Inadequate physical assets, such as land and capital and minimal access by the poor to credit even on a small scale.

21

Inadequate access to the means of supporting rural development in poor regions.

- Inadequate access to markets where the poor can sell goods and services. - Low endowment of human capital - Destruction of natural resource leading to

environmental degradation and reduced productivity. - Inadequate access to assistance for those living at the margin and those victimized by transitory poverty. - Lack of participation; failure to draw the poor into the design of development programmes. Alcock (1997) identified three major causes of poverty. They are pathological, structural and ideological causes. a) Pathological: This makes use of genetic

explanation which seeks to relate social status with supposedly inherited characteristics such as intelligence and psychological approaches. It

focuses on the family or community as the cause of poverty, where the cycle of deprivation in

which

the

inadequate

parenting,

lowered

aspirations and disadvantaged environment of families and communities become internalized. b) Structural: The structural cause explains the individual is not to blame. It focuses on agency failure and directs attention towards those who are supposedly charged with eliminating poverty. For instance, many claimants do not receive the benefits to which they are entitled. Also political decisions are crucial in determining the

circumstances of people living within the political system. c) Ideological: This consists of the different causes of poverty and the likely ways of fighting it from the point of view of neo-liberalism, conservatism, social democracy and revolutionary socialism

(Alcock 1997: 94-96). Olusanya (1997:32), is of the view that poor education, traditional occupations and unemployment determine

23

poverty line in must households in Nigeria and this is compounded by rapid population growth, poor health and poor nutrition. He concludes that all obstructions to the regular flow of income would certainly bring about poverty. At the micro level, factors such as death, accident, illness, and age and lack of employment of the head of the household are top on the list of causes of poverty in Nigeria. These are complimented by lack of occupational training and excessive family size. At the macro level, Nigeria is classified as a low income and severely indebted economy and by implication, a poor country (World Bank, 1999). The causes of poverty in Nigeria with the characteristics mentioned above can be summarized into two categories. They are: 1. Instability of certain key people in the family to get or hold steady well paying jobs. This may be due to lack of expansion of productive activities in the economy and under capacity utilization due to excessive dependence on

foreign inputs. Allied to the above is the lack of relevant education, skills or talents needed by the existing jobs. 2. Economic force and changes in labour

requirements. For example, inflation reduces the quantity of goods and services a given income can purchase and leads to poverty identification. The structural Adjustment

Programme (SAP) and the fiscal and monetary polices of the government including the

exchange rate measures have served to fuel inflation and worsen poverty situation in the country (Aliyu 2001:26).

2.4 EFFECTS OF POVERTY Poverty has a lot of detrimental effects, as a very undesirable level of economic well being, it creates fear, depression, despondency and suicides. Extreme poverty can cause terrible suffering and death, and even modest levels

25

of poverty can prevent people from realizing many of their desires. The worlds poorest people many of whom live in developing countries of Africa, Asia, Latin America, and Eastern Europe struggle daily for food, shelter, and ether necessities. They often suffer from severe malnutrition, epidemic disease outbreaks, famine, and war. In wealthier countries such as the United States, Canada, Japan, and those in Western Europe the effects of poverty include poor nutrition, mental illness, drug dependence, crime, and high rates of disease, depression and anxiety (Corbett 2008:1). Poverty has diverse effects on the poor and the society in general. Poor people of course lack basic human needs particularly quality food and adequate medical care, as such they remain helplessly exposed to illness, disease and high risk of mortality. They live in crowded and poor houses with no basic facilities, jobs available to them provide low wages and little opportunities for improvements and advancement (Okoh, 2000:113). There is the psychological effect of poverty which causes

causes despair, anger, and lack of interest in anything since the poor is not available for mobilization to achieve societal objectives. Similarly, poverty deprives one of any economic and political influence in the society, neither does the poor person have much resources to produce and contribute to the societys pool of goods and services (Otaigbe 2000:16). The needy also have little money to contribute to the political campaigns neither do they have interest in politics nor give adequate education to their children. In fact, there are chains of effects of poverty that the society generally suffers. They include a number of social scourge, the biggest being increased crime (Otaigbe 2000:22). Poverty is a condition of human deprivation, dispowerment and disablement. It is not just low income but poor nutrition which debilitates the human beings mental and manual capacity and leads to the reproduction of retarded and physically and mentally deformed children. Poverty is not just low consumption and poor access to health and educational facilities, it is a condition of chronic

27

daily; illness and disablement by all forms of disease, by illiteracy and semi illiteracy and lack of skill and deskilling (Sekum and Orsaq, 2006:75). Poverty is not just tattered clothing and wretched housing, dirt and lack of sanitation and ventilation, it is dehumanization, degradation and permanent insecurity and instability in all forms of essential family and community relationships and even in the ability to perform religious duties. Furthermore, poverty leads to despondency and hopelessness. In Nigeria, this is because the alarming dimensions of poverty and potential human contributions towards development are wasted as people continue to fall into the poverty trap daily (Usman 1999: 74-77). According to Odurumba (2006:16), persistent chronic poverty has been responsible for most revolutions. Thus, poverty has both social and economic implications and unless efforts are made to alleviate poverty, the condition is compounded and development will be impaired. A major problem of the concept of poverty is that it

presents itself as an entirely economic condition which can only be realistically addressed within an entirely economic framework. The historical experience of mankind in the 21st century has brought out the fact that poverty by dispowering some human beings in a society, disable that society and renders it unstable and incapable of functioning in ways in which it can realize its economic and political potentials. It is not just that the high level of deprivation suffered by the poor reduce their usefulness as consumers of goods and services produced by others but the exercise of their mental and manual capacities as citizens who have social,

educational, cultural, legal, political and economic roles and responsibilities are severely crippled (Edoh 2007:74).

2.5 PERCEPTION AND PERSPECTIVES OF POVERTY There are so many perceptions or perspectives of poverty in the literature. We shall however examine the social democratic perspective, the Marxist perspective, and the individualistic perspective/approach.

29

Social Democratic Perspective Social democracy encompasses a wide spectrum of people who broadly share the belief that a market economy left to its own devices will create large income inequalities and therefore poverty, but that such a situation can be changed through government intervention acting through the parliamentary system. Clearly this is one motivation for setting up the welfare state based on the principle of full employment and universal provision of certain benefits. The key causes of poverty according to writers in this tradition is the operation of the labour market, and in particular the creation of high levels of unemployment. Toionsend (1979), certainly sees the operation of the labour market as a central cause of poverty. Since

participation in the labour market is seen to be the main source of income for most people, exclusion from work is

likely to be a weighty factor.

Marxist Perspective Marxist agrees with social democratic thinkers that the cause of poverty is to be located in the nature of free market capitalism. Central to the writings of Marx (1856), was the idea that capitalism operated by workers producing more in value than they were paid in wages, leaving the surplus value to be accumulated by the capitalist. Marxists disagree with the social democratic thinkers about the solution because they do not believe that the welfare state and nations of citizenship can overcome the inequalities created by capitalism. Since, they say, poverty is a permanent feature of capitalism, the only solution is the revolutionary overthrow of capitalism and the institution of a communist society where production is based on human needs, not profit. The reason for this as perhaps best explained by neo-Marxist writer, Claus Offe. He points out

31

that the welfare state faces a number of key structural limits to its powers. The most important of these is its reliance on tax revenue from private production and borrowing from private financial institutions to fund its activities. This means that in order to fund its activities it needs to ensure the continued profitable operation of capitalism. According to Offe (1984:148); The welfare state, rather than being a separate and antonymous source of well-being which provides incomes and services as a citizens right, is itself highly dependent upon the prosperity and continued profitability of the economy.

Individualistic Approach The key reason for poverty identified by individualistic thinkers is the behaviour and culture of the individuals in poverty. On the basis of his studies, Lewis (1986), argued that the poor have a distinctive set of attitudes, norms and values which include a sense of resignation and fate. This cultural attribute makes them different from the rest of the

population. His list of attributes of this culture of poverty runs to some 62 traits, including things such as feelings of helplessness and marginality, early sexual experience and violence in the household. He maintained that such a way of life of poor people is perpetuated and is passed on from generation to generation (Lewis, 1986:114). This concept has come into more usage, and often tends to be presented as the reason for poverty; these people are in poverty because of their own behavior and attitudes, or at best, that of their parents. Their fatalistic attitude to life leads them to fail to take up opportunities and so they remain poor. They tend to live life for the moment, spending rather than saving, and not getting involved in political or community groups campaigning for change. Lewis further argued that even if some of their poverty is due to the structure of society, their failure to get involved in any attempt to change it is due to their culture, not to structural factors (Lewis 1986: 25-26). A more widespread concept in the individualistic

33

approach today is that of the dependency culture. This is similar to the culture of poverty, but the explanation of the source of that culture is distinctive. 2.6 POVERTY ALLEVIATION STRATEGIES IN NIGERIA According to Wikipedia Encyclopedia (2002), poverty alleviation or reduction is any process which seeks to reduce the level of poverty in a community, or amongst a group of people or countries. World Bank (2002), defined poverty alleviation as any attempt by government, non-

governmental organizations and philanthropists to reduce the hardship imposed on groups or individuals by poverty. Ogwumike (2000) explains poverty alleviation as

programmes aimed at improving the living conditions of people who are already poor. The above explanations indicate that poverty alleviation is a deliberate policy or strategy instituted by government and non governmental organizations aimed at tackling the problems associated with poverty. In other words, it is a policy or strategy aimed at reducing the misery, hardship

and suffering of people caused or as a result of being poor. Poverty alleviation or reduction programmes may be aimed at economic or non-economic poverty. Some of the popular methods used are education, economic development and income redistribution. Poverty alleviation efforts may also be aimed at improving social and legal barriers to income growth among the poor. Egware (1997), explains the approach of poverty

alleviation in Nigeria as; - Increasing the poor and vulnerables access to

productive assets. - Raising the return on assets to which the poor and vulnerable have access. - Promoting employment opportunities. - Investing in human capital, making available to the poor sufficient and relevant qualities of education, health, nutrition and food security. - Empowering the poor to expand their economic and social participation by supplementing their resources

35

and initiatives with adequate and relevant transfers. In Nigeria, poverty has been on the increase, rendering individuals helpless due to little or no access to basic infrastructures and amenities. There is high level of

insecurity, high death rate and increase in corruption in the level of society and government. Over the years successive governments have severally attempted to reduce the problem of poverty through various programmes and schemes. Most of these programmes were put in place by the government (either wholly or in association with international agencies). Poverty alleviation programmes put in place include Operation Feed the Nation (OFN) set up in 1977. Free and Compulsory Primary Education (FCPE) set up also in 1977, Green Revolution established in 1980, and Low Cost Housing Scheme. Both OFN and Green Revolution were set up to boast agricultural production and improve the general performance of the agricultural sector among other things. These programmes made some laudable impacts, they

enhanced the quality of life of many Nigerians. But the programmes could not be sustained due to lack of political will and commitment, policy instability and insufficient involvement of the beneficiaries in these programmes (CBN, 1998). Other programmes by the government to alleviate poverty are the River Basin Development Authorities (RBDA), the Agricultural Development Programme (ADP), the

Agricultural Credit Guarantee Scheme (ACGS), the Rural Electrification Scheme (RES), and the Rural Banking

Programme (RBP). Most of these programmes were designed to take care of such objectives as employment generation enhancing agricultural output and income, and stemming the tide of rural-urban migration, which no doubt affected reduction. According to Ogwumike (1998), despite some significant degree of success made by some of these programmes, most of them could not be sustained. He added that with time many of them failed as a result of diversion from the original focus. For instance, the Rural

37

Banking and the Agricultural Credit Guarantee Scheme at many stages failed to deliver the desired credit for agricultural and rural transformation because a lot of savings were mobilized in rural areas only to be diverted to urban areas in form of credit/investments. Some of the attempts made in the past to alleviate poverty include the establishment of the Directorate of Food, Roads, and Rural Infrastructure (DFFRI) with the major aims of opening up the rural areas and to improve the conditions of the vulnerable poor. The establishment of the Peoples Bank of Nigeria (PBN) to cater for all the credit needs of the less privilege Nigerians, the establishment of the National Directorate of Employment (NDE) to tackle the problem of mass unemployment and the Better Life Programme (BLP) which was gender specific. The Better Life Programme was meant to improve the life of rural women, and was later replaced by the Family Support Programme (FSP). Others such as the National the Agricultural Strategic Land Grains

Development

Authority

(NALDA),

Reserve

Authority

(SGRA),

and

the

Accelerated

Crop

production (ACP) were all established to improve the productive capacities of peasant farmers as well as

improving their incomes and well-being. To assist in eradication of illiteracy which was found to be a major cause of poverty, the Nomadic and Adult Education programmes wee established. Igbuzor (2005:31), reported that these programmes failed because they were hijacked by position seeking individuals, who used most of the resources for personal aggrandizement rather than the set objectives. In the same vein, Elumilade and Asaolu (2006:72), submitted that the master and servant relationships associated with the

programmes to alleviate poverty was responsible for the failure of the programmes. Elumilade and Asaolu concluded that the government claims to know and understand what poverty is, who the poor are and what they need in order to alleviate poverty, whereas, only the poor understands poverty and it is only him that can tell how it can be

39

alleviated.

2.7 PROBLEMS OF POVERTY ALLEVIATION STRATEGIES IN NIGERIA According to Aliyu (1999:13), a very strong foundation is essential for the successful implementation of poverty alleviation schemes in any developing country. These solid base are in the area of: 1. National Security and Political Stability. 2. Discipline 3. Infrastructural Development 4. Economic stability and provision of adequate welfare services. He argued that without adequate foundation on the above, any poverty alleviation scheme through provision of social services and loans for investment may not have the much desired effect. Poverty has been a long standing issue in Nigeria and

several policy and programmes has been implemented by successive Despite all governments these aimed at poverty the alleviation. has

efforts

however,

situation

deteriorated over the years and million of Nigerian are still living in abject poverty and hardship. These programmes have not been able to salvage the poverty stricken nature of people in Nigeria because of their attendant problems. According to United Nations Development Programme (UNDP, 2003), virtually all government policies and

programmes lack targeting mechanism for the poor. Most policies and programmes are too general in focus with the poor being only a component of a differentiated target beneficiary. Secondly, policy discontinuity has inhibited programmes and created a climate of uncertainties. Thirdly, there is inadequate attention of people centered development

strategies, and quite often, the emphasis appears to be on investment in resources rather than investment in peoples welfare. Hence there is considerable investment on large

41

scale capital intensive resources development projects which are often not directly relevant to the socio-economic circumstance of the poor and other vulnerable groups in Nigeria. Fourthly, there is inadequate institutional

mechanism for policy and programme coordination. Fifthly, there is no accountability and transparency in the

implementation of the policies and programmes. Similarly, Ehigiamusoe (2000:45) articulated the

problems of poverty alleviation programmes in Nigeria as: 1. The poor are not adequately targeted by the programmes and therefore are not much affected. 2. The poor are not involved in the formulation and implementation of the programmes. Because of their non involvement, they do not identify with the programmes, and do not support them either by way of local resource contribution or

sustainability. 3. Frequent policy changes, server budgetary

management and administrative inefficiency.

Aliyu (1999:19) x-rayed the problems of poverty alleviation programmes in Nigeria from the point of view of implementation institutions. He highlighted the problems as: a) Duplication of implementation agencies and or their functions leading to unnecessary plurality of influences and interests. b) Wrong identification of implementation

agencies. c) Non-existence of the right implementation trend. d) Poor management of the identified

implementation agencies occasioned by high rate of corruption, lack of incompetence, congruity poor

staffing,

between

national/corporate and individual interest of managers of implementation agencies. In the same vein Garuba (1999) posits that the problem of poverty alleviation programmes in Nigeria revolves around what he call the five Cs

43

1.

Conception: This has to do with the primary intention of the government that conceived the programme. In most cases these programmes were not conceived primarily to address poverty issues but mainly to score cheap political point or as a populist programme designed to confuse existing situation. For example, the Green

Revolution Programme of the Second Republic turned out to be ploy to favour politicians of the ruling party. Fertilizer procurement patronage and with

distribution

became

political

beneficiaries being mainly politicians of the ruling party. The actual farmers were left to depend on the emergency farmers - the politicians. 2. Content: Nigeria poverty alleviation suffered programmes from in

have

always

content

deficiency. For instance, due consideration has never been given to adult education as a tool for empowering people against poverty. In addition,

poverty alleviation programmes in Nigeria has always been a top-down arrangement with little or no input from the grassroots. 3. Coordination: The problem here is the existence of too many agencies established to do the same thing thereby resulting in role overlap and

confusion. This makes coordination difficult. 4. Corruption: This has remained the bane of Nigerians development efforts where poverty

alleviation programmes are put in place, such end in some cases in further empowerment of the rich as the actual beneficiaries turns out to be the privileged class or their cronies. 5. Continuity: In Nigeria, it takes more time to design policies than it takes to jettison it. Owing to rapid change in government, good policies put in place by successive government have been

abandoned by their successors in a bid for the latter to create an impression of working on

45

people.

2.8

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK For the purpose of this study, the Systems theory and

the Basic Need theory has been adopted as the theoretical framework for the study. We shall examine the theories and their relevance to the study.

The Systems Theory The systems concept is used by Talcott Parsons (1951), Ludwig Von Bertalanffy (1950), Katz and Khan (1960), Robert Chin (1969) and David Easton (1957) to denote an analytical scheme for unraveling complexity. The system theory is a concept that refers to the complex of inter-dependencies between parts, components and processes that involves discernible regularities of relationships and to a similar type of inter-dependencies with its surrounding. A system is any whole which functions as a result of inter-relatedness of its parts (Easton 1957: 383-

400). Toffler (1980) maintained that, a system is a set of interacting units which endure through time within and established boundary by responding and adjusting to

changing pressures from the environment in order to achieve and maintain goals. According to Mitchell (1962), a social system consists of two or more persons who are engaged in a patterned or structured form of relationship or interaction and who are guided by sets of values and norms generally called roles. A system Ackoff (1972) has said, is a whole which cannot be taken apart without the loss of its essential

characteristics. These characteristics include; 1. A set of objectives which the entity seeks to achieve and without which it cannot exist; 2. An external environment which receives the output of the system, economic and political variables which present problems to the system

(organization) and which subsequently assist or

47

compound the efforts to resolve the problems; 3. An input which come into the system. This includes demand, support and expectation. 4. A conversion process or an input transforming technology which refers to the processes and techniques by which resource inputs are

transformed into output (the internal mechanisms of the system). 5. The output which is the product, result, outcome from the system as arising from the preceeding processing step. The type of output will depend on the nature of the input, the type of processing and the use expected for the outputs which themselves have implications for systems persistence and effectiveness through feedback mechanism. 6. A feedback process which informs the environment on what the system is doing, while at the same time communicates back to the system the reaction of the environment to its output. This

enables the system to adjust its output, and or processing of input according to the demands of the environment. The system theory can be realistically applied to the study. Borno state is a state established by law to achieve a set of objectives for the proper functioning of the state without which it cannot exist. The state is made of different parts components and units (local governments and

ministries etc) and these parts interact with one another to achieve a common goal, hence it can be classified as a system. Input in this regard include, expectations, supports and demand into Borno State. Expectations are that rather amorphous group of beliefs that citizens have regarding what the state ought to do and the way its officials have to behave. Supports are similar to expectations and take various forms. Obviously, without some form of support, institutions could hardly survive. Support for the Borno state Government include public support, specific support

49

stimulated by certain outputs from the state and involves the citizens perception of how their demands are met as well as Diffuse support a more general concept referring to that reservoir of good-will which a system may engender, not dependent upon a particular output, and at the extreme mode typified by unquestioning loyalty or patriotism. Demands comprise the third conceptual classification of inputs. These demands represent the need for poverty alleviation from individuals and interest groups in Borno state within the context of the responsibilities of the state. The conversion process that transforms inputs into outputs include the strategies, programmes and activities of the state in alleviating poverty. The output represents the end result, outcome of the activities, programme and strategies of the state in terms of poverty alleviation and improving the standard of living of the citizens of the state. The feedback represents the responses, opinions, and perception (of the citizens) from the environment on how it is affected or perceives the outputs of the state as well as

demands placed on it. This informs the (Borno State Government) system on its area of efficiency or deficiency and the need to adjust. Since a system is an entity, conceptual or physical which consists of inter related, inter-dependent and interacting parts that interacts with the environment (public) just like that of Borno state government, the system theory remains an appropriate theoretical framework for the study.

Basic Need Theory The basic need theory is a model of development plan that proposes that development plan and effort should be directed specifically at the provision of essential amenities so as to benefit the poor in areas such as power supply, access roads, nutrition, education, housing, water supply, health facilities, sanitary conditions etc. The basic need theory introduced by the International Labour Organization in 1976 is service directed in approach to plan for development. Proponents of the basic need

51

theory (Hopkins and Hoeven 1983, Burton 1990) postulate that if materials needed for development are specifically targeted at poverty areas, this approach is efficient in economizing and it is an efficient strategy for eradication of poverty. The basic need theory provide us with the materials of an approach to development plan which has the implication of backing up government efforts at development and poverty eradication through private sector stimulation and individuals self reliance by government supports. We must understand that all efforts by government to improve the lot of the poor through skill acquisition and resettlement of graduated trainees will produce positive impact only in a situation where all necessary amenities and infrastructures are in place. For instance, a resettled farmer in a rural area cannot make turnover if his produce cannot be transported, to the appropriate markets for sales i.e where there are no access roads. The same goes for any venture if the needed infrastructures are not available. So

without the provision of basic amenities people who are into small scale and agricultural ventures in the rural areas and even those in the urban centers cannot thrive to improve on their economic status. For Nigerias poverty eradication growth strategy to record the desired success, it must consider the debilitating impact of the social condition and the problem of the value system of the targeted poor. In this instance government has a great role to play in ensuring this growth by official interventions as well as the provision of an enabling environment (ie basic amenities) to improve the human resources and entrepreneurship development efforts of the Nigerian community. According to Atoloye (1977) most of the poverty ameliorating programmes from the government to the communities do not get to the targeted people A strategy of satisfying the basic needs of the people through the creation of job opportunities, provision of infrastructures and the supply of materials that relieve the areas of hardship

53

directly would be more preferred to capital projects that are not directly relevant. What this implies is that with the provision of basic (amenities) need to the people especially at the rural communities, their involvement in economic activities will increase and hence their productive capacity. The relevance of the basic need theory to the study is anchored on the fact that the over riding objective of governments poverty alleviation policy is to broaden the opportunities available to the poor and to ensure that every citizen has access to basic needs of life, food, potable water, clothing, shelter, basic health services and nutrition, basic education and communication. The overall goal is improved living conditions for the poor. The goals are, of course, an array of sector specific objectives to be pursued in order to ensure the success of the policy. Nigerias poverty alleviation is buttressed on the integration of the citizens into

economically, politically and socially sounds society with equal opportunities to live a healthier, richer, fuller and

productive life. It is therefore obvious that poverty alleviation cannot be accomplished without ensuring access to

resources and opportunities by the poor.

SECTION THREE RESEARCH METHODOLOGY This section focuses on the study area and the various methods and techniques employed in getting the

information required for the study as well as the method of analyzing data that would be collected.

3.1

THE STUDY AREA Borno State being the area of study is one of the 36

states of Nigeria. It was in the former North-eastern state comprising of Gongola, Bauchi and Borno. It was created out of the North-eastern state by the then head of State, General Murtala Mohammed in a broadcast to the nation on Friday, 3, 1976. The reason for its creation according to him was that states will no longer be described by reference to

55

geographical points such as North and South, West or East. This should help to ease memories of past political ties an emotional attachment. It will also foster effective

administration and decentralization of power, so as to bring the government closer to the people. Borno is located in the North Eastern part of Nigeria. It shares borders with the neighbouring countries which include the Republic of Chad to the North-East, Niger Republic to the North, and Adamawa State to the SouthEast, Bauchi to the South-West and Yobe State to the West. Based on the 1991 provisional censure figures, Borno state has a population of 2,596,589 and population density of approximately 38 inhabitants per square kilometer. The state has 27 local governments: Askira/Uba, Bama, Biu, Mobbar, Damboa, Dikwa, Gubio, Gwoza, Hawul, Kaga, Konduga, Kukawa, Kwaya-Kusa, Mafa, Magumeri,

Maiduguri, Marte, Monguno, Ngala, Nganzai, Shani, Jrere, Abadam, Chibok, Guzamala, Kala/Balge, and Bayo.

3.2

RESEARCH DESIGN This study will make use of survey method. The choice

of survey method is because it attempts to be fairly representative of the population of interest in its selection of its sample of study. Its major attractions are its relatively low cost considering the fact that useful information about a large number of people could be collected from a relatively small number (representative sample). It is easy to generalize the findings to larger populations once representativeness of the sample is assured. In addition the flexible nature of survey means that a variety of data collection instruments (observation, interviews,

questionnaires, focus group discussion) could be used. This allows one instrument to serve as a check on the other.

3.3 TYPES OF DATA REQUIRED The types of data to be used for this study will centre

57

mainly on understanding the concept and dimensions of poverty, its causes, types, effects, poverty alleviation strategies and implementation problems. Opinions and views (perception) of members of the society on the implementation and sustainability of poverty alleviation strategies in Borno State will be sought.

3.4

SOURCES OF DATA The sources of data for this study will comprise of both

primary and secondary sources. The secondary sources of data will consist of books, journals, magazines, seminar papers, newspapers, internet and unpublished materials. The primary sources will include information obtained from interviews and administration of questionnaires to members of the public in the local government areas of Borno State. Interviews will be held with youth leaders, top local government officials and officials of the Ministry of Poverty Alleviation and Youth Empowerment. Participatory rapid appraisal method based on the technique of focus

group discussion will also be conducted in the local governments.

3.5

POPULATION AND SAMPLE SIZE The population of the study consist of the unemployed

youths (4,847), widows (515), petty traders (2,130) and retrenched and unemployed men and women (1,008). A sample size of 800 will be used for the study. The state will be divided into four clusters which will

accommodate all the 27 local governments in the state. The local governments will be selected through random sampling from each cluster which will constitute the sampling frame. For the study four local governments will be randomly selected from each cluster, amounting to 16 local

governments which will serve as the target population of study. A random sampling method will be used in administering the questionnaire so that the targeted respondents will be reached directly and given equal

59

representation. In this regard 50 questionnaires will be distributed to each of the 16 local government areas, amounting to 800.

3.6

FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSION Focus group discussion is a rapid appraisal technique,

which is akin to the free discussion type of interview. It is normally conducted in small groups of about six to twelve people (Dlakwa, 2002). In this study the discussions will be guided by a Facilitator - the person asking the question, a Recorder - the person taping the discussion for play back information and an Observer - the person monitoring the discussion. These discussions will be conducted in eight local governments, two from each cluster. The objective of this discussion will be to achieve the following: 1. To solicit information about the strategies provided of poverty by the alleviation State

Borno

government.

2. The opinions of the respondents on the impact and sustainability of poverty alleviation programmes by the state government. 3. Some problems of hindering the the

implementation

poverty

alleviation programme of the Borno State Government. 4. To discuss ways how to enhance and sustain the poverty alleviation programmes of the Borno State Government.

3.7

INSTRUMENTS OF DATA COLLECTION The instruments of data collection are questionnaire

and interview. For the study questions will be prepared in the questionnaire form and distributed to respondents. In addition, interview sessions will be conducted with three officials of the Ministry of Poverty Alleviation and

61

Youth Empowerment, and twelve members of the public, three selected from each cluster.

3.8 ADMINISTRATION OF QUESTIONNAIRES The questionnaires will be administered among

members of the public in the state. Eight hundred (800) copies of questionnaires will be distributed to respondents at their places of work and homes. In order to have proper representation of all the members of the public, random sampling will be used to select the respondents from the target population.

3.9 STATISTICAL TOOL OF DATA ANALYSIS The data obtained through the method discussed above will be quantitatively analyzed with the aid of frequency distribution tables, simple percentages, charts and

diagrammes. However in testing the hypothesis formulated the use of chi-square will be applied. The choice of the chisquare is to measure the reliability and significance of data

to see whether deviations of the actual observation (observed frequency) from the expected are significant so that it may lead to the acceptance or rejection of the null hypothesis. The chi-square formular commonly used is: (O E)2 X = E
2

Where: X2 = chi square O = Observed Frequency E = Expected Frequency A suitable low significance level of significance is selected at 0.05 while the degree of freedom is calculated using this formular: (R 1) (C 1) Where: C = Number of Columns R = Number of Rows

3.10

EXPECTED OUTCOME

63

The study is expected to reveal the opinions of the people on the impact and sustainability of poverty

alleviation programmes by the Borno State government. It is also expected to highlight the problems hindering the implementation of poverty alleviation programmes and policy options to enhance and sustain the programmes. REFERENCES Ackoff, R. (1972). Analysis of Systems Science. Boston: Little Brown. Alcock, P. (1997). Understanding Poverty, London: Macmillan Publishers Ltd. Aliyu, M. (2001). Towards Sustainable Implementation of Poverty Alleviation Programmes: The Need for a New Approach. Lagos: Malcom Press. Aliyu, M. (1999). A Perspective of Poverty Alleviation in Nigeria. Abuja: Cosmos Press. Aluko, S. (1995). Policies and Programmes for Social and Human Development. Sam Francisco: International Centre for Economic Growth. Amis, P and Rakodi, C. (1994) Urban Poverty: Issues for Research and Policy Journal of International Development 6(5), 627-634. Atoleye, S.F (1997). Strategy for Growth Led Poverty Alleviation in Nigeria CBN Economic and Financial Review, Vol. 35, No. 3.

Burton, J. (1979). Basic Human Needs. New York: St. Martin Press. Central Bank of Nigeria (1998). Nigerias Development Prospects: Poverty Assessment and Alleviation Study. Research Department (CBN) in collaboration with World Bank. Corbett, (2008). Poverty USA: Encarta, Microsoft Corporation.

Dlakwa, H.D. (2002). Methodology and Data Collection Being a paper presented at a workshop on Teaching and research Methods, University of Maiduguri, Nigeria, 27th to 20th August, 2002. Easton, D. (1957). An Approach to the Analysis of Political System. World Politics Vol. 9. No. 3. Edoh, T. (2007). Poverty and the Survival od Democracy in Nigeria in Nigerian Journal of Political and Administrative Studies Vol. 1 No. 4. Egware, L. (1997). Poverty and Poverty Alleviation: Nigerias Experience in Poverty Alleviation in Nigeria, Selected Papers for the 1997 Annual Conference of Nigerian Economic Society. Ehigiamosoe, B.L. (2000). Poverty Alleviation Through Agricultural Development Project CBN Quarterly Journal Vol. 21, No. 3 July/September. Elumilade, D.O. and Asaolu T.O (2006). Appraising the Institutional Framework for Poverty Alleviation Programmes in Nigeria International Research Journal of Finance and Economics. Vol. 3, No. 2. Ekpene, L. (2001). Concepts and Measurement of Poverty in Nigeria Journal of Applied Science and

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Management, Vol. 5, No. 7. Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development (1992). Ninth Report on German Government Development Policy, Bonn, 13. Garuba, A. (1999). Adult Education and Poverty Alleviation Programmes in Nigeria: A Case for Harmonization In Nigerian Journal of Economic and Social Studies Vol. 40. No. 2. Hemmer, H.R. (1994). Possible Approaches of a PovertyOriented Development Policy: A General Survey, in Economics 49/50, 56-79. Hiffe, T. (1987). The African Poor. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Hopkins, M. and Hoeven R.V (1983). Basic Needs in Development Planning. United Kingdom: Gower Alder-shot. Igbuzor, O. (2005). Alternative Poverty Eradication Strategy for Nigeria In John Moru (ed) Another Nigeria is possible. Abuja: National Social Forum Publication. International Labour Organization (1976). Introduction of Basic Need Theory. World Employment Conference. Johnson, M.P. (1989). Economics for a Developing World. London: Longman Group. Lewis, W.A. (1986). The Theory of Economic Growth. London Kegan Paul Ltd. Marx, K. (1956). The Theory of Social and Economic Organizations. New York: The Free Press. Mitchell, W.C. (1962). The American Polity. New York: The

Free Press. Obadan, M.I. (1997). Poverty in Nigeria: Characteristics, Alleviation Strategies and Programmes NCEMA Policy Analysis Series Vol. 2, No. 2. Offe, R.C. (1984). The Evolution of Poverty and Welfarism Nigeria. Policy Research Working Paper No. 1715, World Bank. Omoruyi, A.A (1987). Conceptual and Methodological Issues in Poverty Alleviation. Ibadan: University of Ibadan Press. Osuntogun, A. (1998). Poverty, Health and the Nigerian Environment. Nigeria: Foundation for Environment, Development and Education. Otaigbe, W. (2002). Poverty, What can be done About it The Watchtower Vol. 124, No. 15 August 11th 2011. Reutlinger, S and Selowsky, M. (1997). Malnutrition and Poverty. Baltimore: Hohn Hopkins University Press. Schubert, R. (1994). Poverty in Developing Countries: its Definition, extent and Implications Economics 49/50, 17-40. Sekuru, A.M. and Orsaa, G.D (2006). Poverty Reduction Strategies in Nigeria: Emerging Issues and Policy Options for Meeting MDGs in Journal of Research and Contemporary Issues. Vol. 2 Number 1 and 2, January December. Sen, A.K. (1987). The Standard of Living. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Toffler, D.C (1980). The Assessment of the Concept of Political Support British Journal of Political

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Science. Vol. 5 No. 2. Teionsand, P. (1979). The Meaning of Poverty The British Journal of Sociology. Vol. 7, No. 1 pp. 210-270. United Nations Development Programme (1990). Nigerian Human Development Report. Lagos: UNDP.

United Nations Development Programme (2003). Nigerian Human Development Report (Millennium Edition). Lagos: UNDP. Usman, Y.B (1999). Poverty Eradication, Alleviation and Sustainable Human Development. Vanguard. August 18th 1999. World Bank (1999). World Development Report: Attacking Poverty. Washington, D.C: World Bank. World Bank (2000). Can Africa Claim the 21st Century? Washington, D.C: World Bank.

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