Laser Beam Machining (LBM) By: Dhiman Johns M.E.

(PIE), Thapar University, Patiala

 LASER stands for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation. The un derline working principle of laser was first put forward by Albert Einstein in 1 917 though the first industrial laser for experimentation was developed around 1 960s. Laser beam can very easily be focused using optical lenses as their wavele ngth ranges from half micron to around 70 microns. Laser Beam Machining An Introduction

 Focussed laser beam can have power density in excess of 1 MW/mm2. Laser Beam Mac hining or more broadly laser material processing deals with machining and materi al processing like heat treatment, alloying, cladding, sheet metal bending etc. Such processing is carried out utilizing the energy of coherent photons or laser beam, which is mostly converted into thermal energy upon interaction with most of the materials.

 As laser interacts with the material, the energy of the photon is absorbed by th e work material leading to rapid substantial rise in local temperature. This in turn results in melting and vaporisation of the work material and finally materi al removal. Nowadays, laser is also finding application in regenerative machinin g or rapid prototyping as in processes like stereo-lithography, selective laser sintering etc.

Laser Beam Machining The Lasing Process Lasing process describes the basic operation of laser, i.e. generation of cohere nt beam of light by light amplification using stimulated emission. In the model of tom, negatively charged electrons rotate around the positively charged nucleus i n some specified orbital paths. The geometry and radii of such orbital paths dep end on a variety of parameters like number of electrons, presence of neighbourin g atoms and their electron structure, presence of electromagnetic field etc. Eac h of the orbital electrons is associated with unique energy levels.

 At absolute zero temperature an atom is considered to be at ground level, when all the electrons occupy their respective lowest potential energy. The electrons at ground state can be excited to higher state of energy by absorb ing energy from external sources like increase in electronic vibration at elevat ed temperature, through chemical reaction as well as via absorbing energy of the photon. Fig. 1 depicts schematically the absorption of a photon by an electron. The electron moves from a lower energy level to a higher energy

Figure 1 , Energy bands in materials

 On reaching the higher energy level, the electron reaches an unstable energy ban d. And it comes back to its ground state within a very small time by releasing a photon. This is called spontaneous emission. Schematically the same is shown in Fig. 1 and Fig. 2. The spontaneously emitted photon would have the same frequen cy as that of the exciting photon.

Fig . 2 Spontaneous and Stimulated emissions

 Sometimes such change of energy state puts the electrons in a meta-stable energy band. Instead of coming back to its ground state immediately it stays at the el evated energy state for micro to milliseconds. In a material, if more number of electrons can be somehow pumped to the higher meta-stable energy state as compar ed to number of electrons at ground state, then it is called population inversion. Such electrons, at higher energy meta-stable state, can return to the ground st ate in the form of an avalanche provided stimulated by a photon of suitable freq uency or energy. This is called stimulated emission. Fig.2 shows one such higher state electron in meta-stable orbit.

 If it is stimulated by a photon of suitable energy then the electron will come d own to the lower energy state and in turn one original photon will be produced. In this way coherent laser beam can be produced. Fig. 3 schematically shows working of a laser.

Fig . 3 Lasing Action

 There is a gas in a cylindrical glass vessel. This gas is called the lasing medi um. One end of the glass is blocked with a 100% reflective mirror and the other end is having a partially reflective mirror. Population inversion can be carried out by exciting the gas atoms or molecules by pumping it with flash lamps. Then stimulated emission would initiate lasing action. Stimulated emission of photon s could be in all directions. Most of the stimulated photons, not along the long itudinal direction would be lost and generate waste heat. The photons in the lon gitudinal direction would form coherent, highly directional,

Lasing Medium- Heart Of LASER Many materials can be used as the heart of the laser. Depending on the lasing me dium lasers are classified as solid state and gas laser. Solid-state lasers are commonly of the following type Ruby which is a chromium alumina alloy having a w avelength of 0.7 m Nd-glass lasers having a wavelength of 1.64 m. Nd-YAG laser hav ing a wavelength of 1.06 m. (Nd-YAG stands for neodymium-doped yttrium aluminium garnet; Nd:Y3Al5O12 ) These solid-state lasers are generally used in material processing.

 The generally used gas lasers are: Helium Neon Argon CO2 etc. Lasers can be o ated in continuous mode or pulsed mode. Typically CO2 gas laser is operated in c ontinuous mode and Nd YAG laser is operated in pulsed mode.

Schematic diagram of Laser Beam Machine Figure 4

Material Removal Mechanism In LBM Figure 5 Physical processes occurring during LBM

 As presented in Fig. 5, the unreflected light is absorbed, thus heating the surf ace of the workpiece. On sufficient heat the workpiece starts to melt and evapor ates. The physics of laser machining is very complex due mainly to scattering an d reflection losses at the machined surface. Additionally, heat diffusion into t he bulk material causes phase change, melting, and/or vaporization. Depending on the power density and time of beam interaction, the mechanism progresses from o ne of heat absorption and conduction to one of melting

 Machining by laser occurs when the power density of the beam is greater than wha t is lost by conduction, convection, and radiation, and moreover, the radiation must penetrate and be absorbed into the material. The power density of the laser beam, Pd, is given by Pd =

4Lp Fl22T The size of the s ot di meter ds is ds = Fl

 The m chining r te (mm/min) can be described as ollows: C L = l EP A h v b

Therefore,

A b o (F l 2 be m t foc l oint, mm2 ) Where Ab = lLP 4C

re l ser 4 = = E v (F l 2 ) h

 The volumetric remov l r te (VRR) (mm3/min) c n be c lcul ted s follows:

C lL P VRR= Ev h where Pd = ower density, W/cm2 L = l ser ower, W Fl = foc l length of lens, c m T = ulse dur tion of l ser, s = be m divergence, r d Cl = const nt de ending o n the m teri l nd conversion efficiency Ev = v oriz tion energy of the m teri l,

W/mm3 Ab =

re of l ser be m

t foc l oint, mm2 h = thickness of m teri l, mm

LASER Be m M chining A lic tion L ser c n be used in wide r nge of m nuf cturing lic tions M teri l remov l d rilling, cutting nd tre nning Welding Cl dding Alloying Drilling micro-sized holes using l ser in difficult to m chine m teri ls is the most domin nt lic tion in industry. In l ser drilling the l ser be m is focus ed over the desired s ot size. For thin sheets ulse l ser c n be used. For thic ker ones continuous l ser m y be used.

P r meters Affecting LBM Figure 6

 Fig. 6 resents the f ctors which ffect the LBM rocess. The f ctors c n be rel ted to LBM Drilling rocess nd re discussed below: Pulse Energy: It is recomm ended th t the required e k ower should be obt ined by incre sing the ulse en ergy while kee ing the ulse dur tion const nt. Drilling of holes with longer u lses c uses enl rgement of the hole entr nce. Pulse Dur tion: The r nge of ulse dur tions suit ble for hole drilling is found to be from 0.1 to 2.5 millisecond . High ulse energy (20J) nd short ulse dur tion re found suit ble for dee h ole drilling in eros ce m teri ls.

 Assist G ses: The g s jet is norm lly directed with the l ser be m into the inte r ction region to remove the molten m teri l from the m chining region nd obt i n cle n cut. Assist g ses lso shield the lens from the ex elled m teri l by s etting u high ressure b rrier t the nozzle o ening. Pure oxygen c uses r id oxid tion nd exothermic re ctions, c using better rocess efficiency. The sele ction of ir, oxygen, or n inert g s de ends on the work iece m teri l nd thic kness. M teri l Pro erties nd Environment: These include the surf ce ch r cteri stics such s reflectivity nd bsor tion coefficient of the bulk m teri l. Addi tion lly, therm l conductivity nd diffusivity, density, s ecific he t, nd l te nt he t re lso considered.

L ser Be m Selection Guide

L ser Be m M chining: New Develo ments In 1994 L u et l., introduced the ultr sonic ssisted l ser m chining technique not only to incre se the hole de th but lso to im rove the qu lity of holes r oduced in luminium-b sed met l m trix com osites (MMC). Using such method, th e hole de th w s incre sed by 20 ercent in ddition to the reduced degree of ho le t ering. In 1995 Hsu nd Moli n, develo ed l ser m chining technique th t em loys du l g s jets to remove the viscous st ge in the molten cutting front n d, thereby, llowing st inless steel to be cut f ster, cle ner, nd thicker.

 In 1997, Todd nd Co ley develo ed rototy e l ser rocessing system for sh i ng dv nced cer mic m teri ls. This rototy e is fully utom ted, five xis, cl osed-loo controlled l ser sh ing system th t ccur tely nd cost effectively roduces com lex sh es in the bove-mentioned m teri l. L ser Assisted EDM: In 1 997, Allen nd Hu ng develo ed novel combin tion of m chining rocesses to f b ric te sm ll holes. Before the microEDM of holes, co er v our l ser r di tion w s used to obt in n rr y of sm ll holes first. These holes were then finished by micro-EDM. Their method showed th t the m chining s eed of microEDM h d been incre sed nd electrode tool we r w s m rkedly reduced while the surf ce qu lit y rem ined unch nged.

L ser Be m M chining Adv nt ges Tool we r nd bre k ge re not encountered. Holes c n be loc ted ccur tely by u sing n o tic l l ser system for lignment. Very sm ll holes with l rge s ect r tio c n be roduced. A wide v riety of h rd nd difficult-to-m chine m teri l s c n be t ckled. M chining is extremely r id nd the setu times re economic l. Holes c n be drilled t difficult entr nce ngles (10 to the surf ce). Bec use of its flexibility, the rocess c n be utom ted e sily such s the on-the-fly o er tion for thin g uge m teri l, which requires one shot to roduce hole. Th e o er ting cost is low.

L ser Be m M chining Limit tions High equi ment cost. T ers re norm lly encountered in the direct drilling of h oles. A blind hole of recise de th is difficult to chieve with l ser. The th ickness of the m teri l th t c n be l ser drilled is restricted to 50 mm. Adhere nt m teri ls, which re found norm lly t the exit holes, need to be removed.

References: Adv nced M chining Processes By H ss n Abdel-G w d El-Hofy Non Convention l M ch ining By P.K. Mishr