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July, 1998
5-1
Chapter 5 Section A
July, 1998
5-2
TX
RX Maximum current at the middle Current induced in receiving antenna is vector sum of contribution of every tiny slice of radiating antenna
Width of band denotes current magnitude
RF power causes the current flow Current flowing radiates electromagnetic fields Electromagnetic fields cause current in receiving antennas
The effect of the total antenna is the sum of what every tiny slice of the antenna is doing
Radiation of a tiny slice is proportional to its length times the current in it remember, the current has a magnitude and a phase!
RF100 (c) 1998 Scott Baxter 5-3
July, 1998
Each slice of the antenna produces a definite amount of radiation at a specific phase angle Strength of signal received varies, depending on direction of departure from radiating antenna
Maximum Radiation:
contributions in phase, reinforce
TX
Minimum Radiation:
contributions out of phase, cancel
In some directions, the components add up in phase to a strong signal level In other directions, due to the different distances the various components must travel to reach the receiver, they are out of phase and cancel, leaving a much weaker signal
An antennas directivity is the same for transmission & reception
July, 1998
5-4
Antenna Polarization
Antenna 1 Vertically Polarized
Electromagnetic Field
TX
current
RX
almost no current
RF current in a conductor causes electromagnetic fields that seek to induce current flowing in the same direction in other conductors. The orientation of the antenna is called its polarization. Coupling between two antennas is proportional to the cosine of the angle of their relative orientation
To intercept significant energy, a receiving antenna must be oriented parallel to the transmitting antenna A receiving antenna oriented at right angles to the transmitting antenna is cross-polarized; will have very little current induced Vertical polarization is the default convention in wireless telephony In the cluttered urban environment, energy becomes scattered and de-polarized during propagation, so polarization is not as critical Handset users hold the antennas at seemingly random angles..
July, 1998 RF100 (c) 1998 Scott Baxter 5-5
Antenna Gain
Antennas are passive devices: they do not produce power
Can only receive power in one form and pass it on in another, minus incidental losses Cannot generate power or amplify
However, an antenna can appear to have gain compared against another antenna or condition. This gain can be expressed in dB or as a power ratio. It applies both to radiating and receiving A directional antenna, in its direction of maximum radiation, appears to have gain compared against a non-directional antenna Gain in one direction comes at the expense of less radiation in other directions Antenna Gain is RELATIVE, not ABSOLUTE
Omni-directional Antenna
When describing antenna gain, the comparison condition must be stated or implied
July, 1998 RF100 (c) 1998 Scott Baxter
Directional Antenna
5-6
Reference Antennas
Isotropic Radiator
Truly non-directional -- in 3 dimensions Difficult to build or approximate physically, Isotropic Antenna but mathematically very simple to describe A popular reference: 1000 MHz and above
PCS, microwave, etc.
Dipole Antenna
Non-directional in 2-dimensional plane only Can be easily constructed, physically practical A popular reference: below 1000 MHz
800 MHz. cellular, land mobile, TV & FM Quantity Gain above Isotropic radiator Gain above Dipole reference Effective Radiated Power Vs. Isotropic Effective Radiated Power Vs. Dipole
July, 1998
Dipole Antenna Notice that a dipole has 2.15 dB gain compared to an isotropic antenna.
5-7
TX
100 W
B
TX
100 W
ERP: compared with dipole antenna EIRP: compared with Isotropic antenna
Example: Antennas A and B each radiate 100 watts from their own transmitters. Antenna A is our reference, it happens to be isotropic. Antenna B is directional. In its maximum direction, its signal seems 2.75 stronger than the signal from antenna A. Antenna Bs EIRP in this case is 275 watts.
July, 1998 RF100 (c) 1998 Scott Baxter
A (ref)
A B
275w 100w
5-8
Isotropic
Dipole
Gain Comparison
12.1 dBi 10dBd
July, 1998
5-9
Radiation Patterns
Key Features And Terminology
An antennas directivity is expressed as a series of patterns
The Horizontal Plane Pattern graphs the radiation as a function of azimuth (i.e..,direction N-E-S-W) The Vertical Plane Pattern graphs the radiation as a function of elevation (i.e.., up, down, horizontal) Antennas are often compared by noting specific landmark points on their patterns: Typical Example
-3 dB (HPBW), -6 dB, -10 dB points Front-to-back ratio Angles of nulls, minor lobes, etc.
180 (S)
July, 1998
5 - 10
Examples:
corner reflector used at cellular or higher frequencies parabolic reflector used at microwave frequencies grid or single pipe reflector for cellular
In phase
Power is fed or coupled to multiple antenna elements; each element radiates Elements radiation in phase in some directions In other directions, a phase delay for each element creates pattern lobes and nulls
July, 1998 RF100 (c) 1998 Scott Baxter
Out of phase
5 - 11
Types Of Arrays
Collinear vertical arrays Collinear Vertical Array
Essentially omnidirectional in horizontal plane Power gain approximately equal to the number of elements Nulls exist in vertical pattern, unless deliberately filled
Arrays in horizontal plane
RF power
Log-periodic
all elements driven wide bandwidth
Yagi
RF power
Log-Periodic
July, 1998
5 - 12
Omni Antennas
Collinear Vertical Arrays
The family of omni-directional wireless antennas: Number of elements determines
Require stable mounting and careful alignment Watch out: be sure nulls do not fall in important coverage areas
Rod and grid reflectors are sometimes added for mild directivity
Examples: 800 MHz.: dB803, PD10017, BCR-10O, Kathrein 740-198 1900 MHz.: dB-910, ASPP2933
July, 1998
-3 d B
5 - 13
Sector Antennas
Reflectors And Vertical Arrays
Typical commercial sector antennas are vertical combinations of dipoles, yagis, or log-periodic elements with reflector (panel or grid) backing
Vertical Plane Pattern Up
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5 - 14
Antenna Model Frequency Range, MHz. Gain - dBd/dBi VSWR Beamwidth (3 dB from maximum) Polarization Maximum power input - Watts Input Impedance - Ohms Lightning Protection Termination - Standard Jumper Cable
ASPP2936 1850-1990 6/8.1 <1.5:1 15 Vertical 400 50 Direct Ground N-Female Order Sep.
dB910C-M 1850-1970 10/12.1 <1.5:1 5 Vertical 400 50 Direct Ground N-Female Order Sep.
Mechanical Data Antenna Model ASPP2933 Overall length - in (mm) 24 (610) Radome OD - in (mm) 1.1 (25.4) Wind area - ft2 (m2) .17 (.0155) Wind load @ 125 mph/201 kph lb-f (n) 4 (17) Maximum wind speed - mph (kph) 140 (225) Weight - lbs (kg) Shipping Weight - lbs (kg) Clamps (steel) 4 (1.8) 11 (4.9) ASPA320
ASPP2936 36 (915) 1.0 (25.4) .25 (.0233) 6 (26) 140 (225) 6 (2.7) 13 (5.9) ASPA320
dB910C-M 77 (1955) 1.5 (38) .54 (.05) 14 (61) 125 (201) 5.2 (2.4) 9 (4.1) Integral
July, 1998
5 - 15
E-Plane (elevation plane) Gain: 10 dBd Dipole pattern is superimposed at scale for comparison (not often shown in commercial catalogs) Frequency is shown Pattern values shown in dBd Note 1-degree indices through region of main lobe for most accurate reading Notice minor lobe and null detail!
July, 1998
5 - 16
Chapter 5 Section B
July, 1998
5 - 17
Antenna Systems
Antenna
D u p l e x e r
Combiner
TX TX RX
BPF
Antenna systems include more than just antennas Transmission Lines Necessary to connect transmitting and receiving equipment Other Components necessary to achieve desired system function Filters, Combiners, Duplexers - to achieve desired connections Directional Couplers, wattmeters - for measurement of performance Manufacturers system may include some or all of these items Remaining items are added individually as needed by system operator
July, 1998 RF100 (c) 1998 Scott Baxter 5 - 18
Dielectric:
air foam
Outside surface
unjacketed jacketed
Foam Dielectric
Air Dielectric
July, 1998
5 - 19
Transmission Lines
Some Practical Considerations
Transmission lines practical considerations
Periodicity of inner conductor supporting structure can cause VSWR peaks at some frequencies, so specify the frequency band when ordering Air dielectric lines
lower loss than foam-dielectric; dry air is excellent insulator shipped pressurized; do not accept delivery if pressure leak
July, 1998
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July, 1998
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Transmission Lines
Special Electrical Properties
Transmission lines have impedancetransforming properties
Matched condition ZIN = 50 Zo=50 ZLOAD= 50
When terminated with same impedance as Zo, input to line appears as impedance Zo When terminated with impedance different from Zo, input to line is a complex function of frequency and line length. Use Smith Chart or formulae to compute
Special case of interest: Line section one-quarter wavelength long has convenient properties useful in matching networks
Zo=50
ZLOAD= 83 -j22
ZIN=25
ZLOAD= 100
ZIN = (Zo2)/(ZLOAD)
July, 1998 RF100 (c) 1998 Scott Baxter
5 - 22
Transmission Lines
Important Installation Practices
Respect specified minimum bending radius!
Inner conductor must remain concentric, otherwise Zo changes Dents, kinks in outer conductor change Zo
Dont bend large, stiff lines (15/8 or larger) to make direct connection with antennas Use appropriate jumpers, weatherproofed properly. Secure jumpers against wind vibration.
Observe Minimum Bending Radius!
July, 1998
5 - 23
Transmission Lines
Important Installation Practices, Continued
During hoisting Allow line to support its own weight only for distances approved by manufacturer Deformation and stretching may result, changing the Zo Use hoisting grips, messenger cable After mounting Support the line with proper mounting clamps at manufacturers recommended spacing intervals Strong winds will set up damaging metal-fatigueinducing vibrations
July, 1998
5 - 24
RF Filters
Basic Characteristics And Specifications
Typical RF bandpass filter
Types of Filters
insertion loss 0 passband ripple passband width
Attenuation, dB
RF100 (c) 1998 Scott Baxter
Single-pole:
pass reject (notch)
-3 dB
Multi-pole:
band-pass band-reject
Frequency, megaHertz
Typical bandpass filters have insertion loss of 1-3 dB. and passband ripple of 2-6 dB. Bandwidth is typically 1-20% of center frequency, depending on application. Attenuation slope and out-of-band attenuation depend on # of poles & design
5 - 25
RF Filters
Types And Applications
Filters are the basic building blocks of duplexers and more complex devices Most manufacturers network equipment includes internal bandpass filters at receiver input and transmitter output Filters are also available for special applications Number of poles (filter elements) and other design variables determine filters electrical characteristics
Notice construction: RF input excites one quarter-wave element and electromagnet fields propagate from element to element, finally exciting the last element which is directly coupled to the output. Each element is individually set and forms a pole in the filters overall response curve.
5 - 26
July, 1998
Minimum power loss from transmitter to antenna Maximum isolation between transmitters
Combiner types
TX TX TX TX TX TX TX TX
Tuned
low insertion loss ~1-3 dB transmitter frequencies must be significantly separated
Hybrid
insertion loss -3 dB per stage no restriction on transmitter frequencies
Linear amplifier
linearity and intermodulation are major design and operation issues
July, 1998
5 - 27
Duplexer Basics
Duplexer allows simultaneous transmitting and receiving on one antenna Nortel 1900 MHz BTS RFFEs include internal duplexer Nortel 800 MHz BTS does not include duplexer but commercial units can be used if desired Important duplexer specifications TX pass-through insertion loss RX pass-through insertion loss TX-to-RX isolation at TX frequency (RX intermodulation issue) TX-to-RX isolation at RX frequency (TX noise floor issue) Internally-generated IMP limit specification Antenna
Duplexer
fR RX fT TX
Principle of operation
Duplexer is composed of individual bandpass filters to isolate TX from RX while allowing access to antenna for both. Filter design determines actual isolation between TX and RX, and insertion loss TX-to-Antenna and RX-to-Antenna.
July, 1998
5 - 28
Directional Couplers
Couplers are used to measure forward and reflected energy in a transmission line; it has 4 ports: Input (from TX), Output (to load) Forward and Reverse Samples Sensing loops probe E& I in line Equal sensitivity to E & H fields Terminations absorb induced current in one direction, leaving only sample of other direction Typical performance specifications Coupling factor ~20, ~30, ~40 dB., order as appropriate for application Directivity ~30-~40 dB., f($) defined as relative attenuation of unwanted direction in each sample
July, 1998
Principle of operation
RT Input ZLOAD= 50 Reverse Sample
Forward Sample
RT
Main lines E & I induce equal signals in sense loops. E is direction-independent, but Is polarity depends on direction and cancels sample induced in one direction. Thus sense loop signals are directional. One end is used, the other terminated.
5 - 29
Transmission line
A perfect antenna will absorb and radiate all the power fed to it Real antennas absorb most of the power, but reflect a portion back down the line A Directional Coupler or Directional Wattmeter can be used to measure the magnitude of the energy in both forward and reflected directions Antenna specs give maximum reflection over a specific frequency range Reflection magnitude can be expressed in the forms VSWR, Return Loss, or reflection coefficient VSWR = Voltage Standing Wave Ratio
July, 1998 RF100 (c) 1998 Scott Baxter 5 - 30
30
20
10
0 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
VSWR
Forward Power, Reflected Power, Return Loss, and VSWR can be related by these equations and the graph. Typical antenna VSWR specifications are 1.5:1 maximum over a specified band. VSWR 1.5 : 1 = 14 db return loss = 4.0% reflected power
1+ VSWR = 1Reflected Power Forward Power Reflected Power Forward Power
5 - 31
Transmission Line
-30
A Network Analyzer can also display polar plots, Smith Charts, phase response A Spectrum Analyzer and tracking generator can be used if Network Analyzer not available
f1
f2
Its a good idea to take swept or TDR return loss measurements of a new antenna at installation and to recheck periodically maintain a printed or electronically stored copy of the analyzer output for comparison most types of antenna or transmission line failures are easily detectable by comparison with stored data
What is the maximum acceptable value of return loss as seen in sketch above? Given: Antenna VSWR max spec is 1.5 : 1 between f1 and f2 Transmission line loss = 3 dB. Consideration & Solution: From chart, VSWR of 1.5 : 1 is a return loss of -14 dB, measured at the antenna Power goes through the line loss of -3 db to reach the antenna, and -3 db to return Therefore, maximum acceptable observation on the ground is -14 -3 -3 = - 20 dB.
July, 1998 RF100 (c) 1998 Scott Baxter 5 - 32
Chapter 5 Section C
July, 1998
5 - 33
Near-Field/Far-Field Considerations
Antenna behavior is very different close-in and far out Near-field region: the area within about 10 times the spacing between antennas internal elements
Inside this region, the signal behaves as independent fields from each element of the antenna, with their individual directivity
Far-field region: the area beyond roughly 10 times the spacing between the antennas internal elements
Near-field
In this region, the antenna seems to be a point-source and the contributions of the individual elements are indistinguishable The pattern is the composite of the array
Obstructions in the near-field can dramatically alter the antenna performance
Far-field
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July, 1998
5 - 35
Coupling loss between isotropic antennas one wavelength apart is 22 dB 6 dB additional coupling loss with each doubling of separation Add gain or loss referenced from horizontal plane patterns Measure vertical separation between centers of the antennas
vertical separation usually is very effective
One antenna should not be mounted in main lobe and near-field of another
Typically within 10 feet @ 800 MHz Typically 5-10 feet @ 1900 MHz
July, 1998 RF100 (c) 1998 Scott Baxter 5 - 36
Typical Angles
Thumb width Nail of forefinger All knuckles ~2 degrees ~1 degree ~10 degrees
5 - 37
Antenna Downtilt
Whats the goal?
Scenario 1
Cell A Cell B
Reduce radiation toward a distant co-channel cell Concentrate radiation within the serving cell Scenario 2
2. Prevent Overshoot
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Compare the angles toward objects against the antenna vertical pattern -- whats radiating
toward the target?
Depression
angle Vertical distance
Horizontal distance
Notice the height and horizontal distance must be expressed in the same units before dividing (both in feet, both in miles, etc.)
Types Of Downtilt
Mechanical downtilt Physically tilt the antenna The pattern in front goes down, and behind goes up Popular for sectorization and special omni applications Electrical downtilt Incremental phase shift is applied in the feed network The pattern droops all around, like an inverted saucer Common technique when downtilting omni cells
July, 1998
5 - 40
Reduce Interference
Scenario 1
Cell A
Concept
Cell B
weak
strong
The Concept: Radiate a strong signal toward everything within the serving cell, but significantly reduce the radiation toward the area of Cell B The Reality: When actually calculated, its surprising how small the difference in angle is between the far edge of cell A and the near edge of Cell B Delta in the example is only 0.3 degrees!! Lets look at antenna patterns
5 - 41
Reality 2 1
12 miles
1 2
= ArcTAN ( 150 / ( 4 * 5280 ) ) = -0.4 degrees = ArcTAN ( 150 / ( 12 * 5280 ) ) = -0.1 degrees
July, 1998
Reduce Interference
Scenario 1 , Continued
Its an attractive idea, but usually the angle between edge of serving cell and nearest edge of distant cell is just too small to exploit Downtilt or not, cant get much difference in antenna radiation between 1 and 2 Even if the pattern were sharp enough, alignment accuracy and wind-flexing would be problems delta in this example is less than one degree! Also, if downtilting -- watch out for excessive RSSI and IM involving mobiles near cell! Soft handoff and good CDMA power control is more important
-0.1 -0.4
1 2
July, 1998
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Avoid Overshoot
Scenario 2
Scenario 2
Application concern: too little radiation toward low, close-in coverage targets The solution is common-sense matching of the antenna vertical pattern to the angles where radiation is needed Calculate vertical angles to targets!! Watch the pattern nulls -- where do they fall on the ground? Choose a low-gain antenna with a fat vertical pattern if you have a wide range of vertical angles to hit Downtilt if appropriate If needed, investigate special nullfilled antennas with smooth patterns
July, 1998
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