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ANTI-FRICTION BEARINGS:
These Bearings utilize Rolling Balls or Rollers to provide a Rolling Contact between the surfaces. In an automobile, anti-friction Bearings are found in the Suspension, Transmission and other parts of the Drive Train.
SLEEVE BEARINGS:
The Sleeve Bearings are so called because they are shaped like a Sleeve and are firmly held in place around a rotating Shaft, which results in a Sliding Contact. Sleeve Bearings are found inside the Engine i.e. Components like Crankshaft, Connecting Rod and Camshaft.
Sleeve Bearings are also called Insert Bearings because of the manner in which they are installed inside the engine.
u LOAD CARRYING CAPACITY : Modern engines are Lighter and more Powerful. They have Higher Compression Ratios, which impose greater loads on the Bearings. Hence, Bearings must be able to withstand these loads. Today, Connecting Rod Bearings carry loads with a minimum value of 6 000 psi (41 369 kpa). u FATIGUE RESISTANCE: This signifies the ability of a bearing material to withstand the loads during engine operation. A bearing material must be strong enough to support the loads the bearing is subjected to during engine operation.
u EMBEDABILITY: This term refers to the ability of the bearing material to permit foreign particles to embed in it. Dirt and Dust Particles enter the engine despite the air cleaner and oil filter. Some of them work onto the bearings and are not flushed away by the oil. A Bearing protects itself by letting such particles sink into, or embed in, the bearing lining material. These particles can disrupt the oil film, creating localized Hot Spots on the bearing surface resulting in fatigue failure of the Lining. u CONFORMABILITY: This is the ability of the Bearing material to variations in Shaft alignment and journal shape. E.g. a shaft is slightly tapered. The bearing under the larger diameter will be more heavily loaded. If the bearing material has High Conformability, the material will flow slightly, from the heavily loaded areas to lightly loaded areas. This slight flow evens the load on the Bearing. u CORROSION RESISTANCE: The by-products of combustion may form corrosive substances, harmful to some metals. Unleaded Gasoline, required on cars using Catalytic Converters, changes the chemistry of the oil, resulting in an increase in Bearing Corrosion. Aluminum-Lead Bearings withstand corrosion better than Copper-Lead Bearings. u COMPATIBILITY: Compatibility is the ability of the Bearing Lining material to operate with a dissimilar metal and not suffer any Structural Damage.
u TEMPERATURE STRENGTH: Many materials are unsuitable for use as a Bearing material as they tend to Loose their hardness i.e. become Ductile at elevated temperatures. Hence, Bearing material should have good temperature Strength. u THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY: This signifies the ability of the Bearing material to absorb and Dissipate Heat since a great amount of heat is generated by the load and speed of the rotating shaft. u WEAR RATE: The bearing material must be so hard and tough that it will not wear too fast. At the same time, it must be soft enough to permit good Embedability and conformability.
u Two phases alloys of the traditional types, viz. White Metals and Bronzes. u Two-phase alloys in which one phase can become a lubricant under extreme circumstances, e.g. Leaded Bronzes and Aluminum based alloys. u Single Phase materials, (Polytetrafluoroethylene). e.g. Nylon and PTFE
u COPPER BASED BEARING ALLOYS I.E. BRONZES: These can be further subdivided into two categories: u u Over-plated Copper Lead Bearing Alloys Non over-plated Copper Lead Bearing Alloys
u OVER-PLATED COPPER LEAD BEARING ALLOYS: These materials are used in Bearings required for Heavy Duty and Extra Heavy Duty Applications. It is of Five-layer construction. High fatigue Strength in this bearing alloy is achieved by limiting the amount of lead in the copper-lead Lining to less than 30%. Actually, this alloy contains only 24% lead, 1% tin and remaining 75% copper. The over-plated copper-lead bearing also provides good conformability and Embeddability, plus excellent corrosion-resistance and thermal conductivity. u NON OVER-PLATED COPPER-LEAD BEARING ALLOYS: This alloy contains 65% copper and 35% lead. It is classified as a Medium duty Bearing alloy because its higher lead content makes it somewhat softer than the Over-plated Copper Lead Bearing alloy. Its higher Lead content also eliminates the need for an over-plated layer.
u ALUMINIUM BASED ALLOYS: Aluminium based Bearings are further classified into three types: u u u Non over-plated Aluminium Tin alloy Non over-plated Aluminium Lead alloy Over-plated Aluminium Cadmium alloy
u NON OVER-PLATED ALUMINIUM TIN ALLOY: This bearing alloy consists of 79% Aluminium, 20% tin and 1% copper. This is a medium duty-bearing alloy. Aluminium has excellent load carrying capacity. Tin is added to make it compatible with finished crankshaft surfaces. u NON OVER-PLATED ALUMINIUM LEAD ALLOY: This alloy is also a medium duty-bearing alloy and its composition is 89.5% aluminum, 6% lead, 4% silicon and 0.5% tin. Lead also plays the same role in Aluminum lead bearings as is played by tin in tin lead bearings. Both these types of bearings provide good fatigue strength, high thermal conductivity, excellent corrosion resistance and good compatibility.
u OVER-PLATED ALUMINIUM CADMIUM ALLOY: This is a Heavy duty and extra Heavy duty-bearing alloy. It is of four-layer construction. Bonded onto a steel back is an aluminum-cadmium alloy lining with a lead tin over-plating all over. A nickel barrier plate as found in over-plated copper-lead bearings, is not necessary in this bearing, since the over-plate is not reactive with the aluminum lining material. As an
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Aluminum alloy, this bearing material features superior resistance to corrosion from organic acids. It also offers outstanding service life. The aluminum-cadmium alloy consists of 95% aluminum, 3% cadmium and 1% each of copper and nickel. u SINGLE PHASE BEARING MATERIALS: In this category, Nylon and PTFE (Polytetrafluoroethylene) are the most important. The coeff. Of friction of PTFE ( =0.03-0.1) is lower than for any other solid material. However, to improve its mechanical properties, it has to be strengthened by some Filler material. PTFE/Bronze Composites are used up to temperatures of 300C--The upper working limit for PTFE. They are used in automobile industry as Bearings in Windscreen Wipers and Steering System Bushes. For Nylon, Bronze can be used as the Filler material. An important feature of both materials is that they function well as Dry Bearings. Hence, they are useful in machinery for the preparation of food and textiles where contamination by a lubricant would be unacceptable. They are also used in some cases where a bearing is so inaccessible as to make its lubrication difficult.
ALLOYS USED IN GABRIEL E.B.D: Following alloys are used in Gabriel for bearing manufacture: u BRONZES: HF 2 HF 16 80.0% Cu, 10.0% Sn, 10.0% Pb (ISO CuPb10Sn10) 72.0% Cu, 3.5% Sn, 23.0% Pb 3.0% max Zn (ISO CuPb24Sn4)
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u ALUMINIUM ALLOY: AT 20 AL 6 An 79.0% Al, 20.0% Sn, 1.0% Cu (ISO AlSn20Cu) 89.5% Al, 6.0% Pb, 4.0% Si, 0.5%
On the next page is a table showing comparison of important parameters for some common bearing alloys as per FEDERAL MOGUL specifications. Entries are on a scale of 1 to 100. FEDERAL MOGUL specs H 116 A 250 H 24 A 200 AT 20 Bearing Material Over-plated Copper Lead Over-plated Aluminium Tin Over-plated Copper Lead Over-plated Aluminium Alloy Un-plated Aluminium Tin Load Conform Embeda Corrosion Compati Capacity --ability --bility Resistance ---bility C with soft ost shafts 100 100 85 75 60 85 80 85 80 60 85 80 85 80 60 90 100 80 100 100 No No Yes Yes Yes 90 100 90 100 75
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H 35 LT B 100 L 100
50 25 25
70 95 100
70 95 100
60 100 70
70 85 65
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ENGINE OIL: As is evident from the foregoing discussion, Engine oil plays an important part in the smooth functioning of the engine. Engine oils are carefully formulated to reduce the adverse effects engine operation. Effective engine oil should possess following important properties: u u u u u u u Prompt circulation through the engine circulation system. Provide lubrication without foaming. Reduce friction and wear. Prevent rust and corrosion Prevent the formation of Sludge and Varnish deposits Provide cooling for engine parts Keep internal engine parts clean.
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3.
WALL THICKNESS:
Wall thickness is the combined thickness of the bearing back and the lining material. Wall thickness is determined by shaft size, housing size and desired oil clearance. LENGTH: The length dimension is from one end of the bearing to the other end.
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HEIGHT:
Bearing Height is the critical dimension. It is the distance from the parting line surfaces to the top of the bearing crown. Bearing Height ensures that the bearing back is in complete contact with the housing bore surface.
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CRUSH:
When two bearing halves are seated and bolted in the engine, the bearing height provides a crush fit. This ensures that the bearing will remain firmly and properly seated during operations. Crush prevents bearing movement in the housing. CRUSH RELIEF:
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Wall thickness at the parting line of the bearing is reduced for the crush relief. This minimizes the effect of crushing the lining at the parting surfaces into the oil clearance space. Also, Crush relief will also compensate for any slight misalignment or side shift of the bearing cap.
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8.
BEARING SPREAD:
Bearing Spread is the outside diameter of the bearing across the parting surfaces. Its slightly more than the housing bore diameter into which the bearing fits. Spread permits the bearing to shape into place and to remain into place during the engine assembly.
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GAUGE DIAMETER:
Gauge diameter is equivalent to the height limit of the bearing housing into which the bearing fits. It determines the amount of bearing spread necessary and is used in determining the bearing height. 10.OIL CLEARANCE: Oil Clearance is the space between the bearing and the shaft for the oil to flow. This oil clearance is usually a few thousandths of an inch. 11. DISTRIBUTING GROOVE: The distributing groove or the oil spreader is used to improve axial distribution of the lubricant. This groove is used only on certain wide engine bearings.
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Annular oil groove transfers lubricant for linear distribution across the surface of bearing. In most automotive and diesel engines, grooved bearings are used in upper main bearings positions.
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13.
OIL HOLE:
Oil hole transfers lubricant to bearing surfaces. In most engines, a main oil gallery in the block feeds lubricant to the crankshaft journals and oil clearance spaces. Therefore an oil hole is required in all main bearings. In con-rod bearings, oil is sent to the bearings through the holes drilled in the con-rod.
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The locking lip locates the bearing in the housing and prevents the bearing from shifting endwise in the bearing housing during assembly. A dowel also serves the same purpose but is not used frequently. PARTING LINE CHAMFER:
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Chamfer eliminates a sharp edge, which, under the unavoidable slight misassemble conditions, would tend to shear the oil film from the shaft. 16.BEARING UNDERSIZE: When the crankshaft is worn to the extent that standard bearings will result in decrease in oil pressure, then, undersize bearings are used to compensate for additional oil clearance. Though these bearings are thicker, they are called undersize because the journals and crankpins of the crankshaft are smaller in diameter i.e. are under the standard size.
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17.ECCENTRIC BEARINGS: In this type of Bearing, the wall thickness gradually becomes thinner in taper from the crown to the parting faces. Eccentricity has two benefits: u u Slight eccentricity built into the bearing wall helps increase the wedge effect to build the oil film under the loaded area. Eccentric wall bearings allow a reduction of the vertical oil clearance without reducing the effectiveness of the oil flow through the oil clearance space for cooling purposes.
In addition to these terms, some special terms are used for Flange Bearings. These are as follows: THRUST FACE:
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The thrust face controls the crankshaft endplay and absorbs the thrust load resulting
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The inside distance between the flanges of a double flanged bearing is referred to as bar gauge. 3
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thickness of a flange.
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The flange oil pocket is machined into the thrust face of the bearing. Its purpose is to provide lubricant between the thrust face and the crankshaft thrust disc.
BEARING MANUFACTURE:
Engine Bearings and Bushings are produced by several different methods, depending on the exact use of the bearing/bushing in the engine.
u
Main bearings and Connecting Rod bearings are produced by the Strip Process. In this process, bearing lining is applied to a continuous steel strip. This strip is then cut into blanks and formed into the proper shape. The formed blanks then go through a series of manufacturing steps to produce the finished bearing half. Cam-shaft bearings are produced by two methods: These bearings are manufactured from a seamless steel tube with lining material bonded to the inside. The tubing is then cut into sections and machined as required to produce a finished bearing. For heavy-duty applications, Camshaft bearings are formed out of a rolled, flat steel strip that has a heavy duty lining material bonded to it. The ends of the strip are then joined with either a straight or interlocking seam. Bushings are produced by two methods: Some Bushings are manufactured out of a wrought bronze or a steel strip with a bronze lining sintered to it. The ends of the strip are then joined with an Interlocking Clinch Butt Seam.
u u
u
u
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Below is given the Process Flow Charts for the manufacture of Straight Bearings, Flange Bearings and Bushes:
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BLANKING FLARING COINING COUNTER BORE PRE HEIGHT BAR TURN I.D BORE GROOVE FIRST HOLE LIP PUNCH SECOND HOLE I.D/O.D C SINK LIP MILL I.D BROACH PLATING 20
BLANKING GROOVING I.D/O.D C SINK FIRST FORM SEMI COIN FINAL COIN ANNEALING FACING GRINDING TUMBLING TIN FLASH BORING
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u LIP PUNCHING: Lip Location, Size and Length in operation in accordance with the recess cut in the housing for the Lip Bearing to sit. Any variation in this dimension would affect proper seating of the bearing in the engine Block. Wall Distortion during the Lip Cutting operation is to be avoided as this will lead to the improper fitment or caving in of the I.D surface inside the Housing and near the lip area, which would in turn foul the Shaft and Bearing may fail or rotate in the Housing. u OIL HOLE LOCATION: Lubricating oil is extremely essential for engine to run. If oil Supply is stopped, Bearing would be dry and shaft will
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generate a lot of heat due to friction, as a result, the engine would seize immediately. Hence oil hole location has to be correct so that it allows continuous oil flow. u FULL GROOVE, GROOVE: PARTIAL GROOVE & DISTRIBUTION
Step in Groove, chattering, back thickness, any variation would cause uneven oil flow and under load oil film breakage. Actually, grooves are provided to collect oil from oil hole and distribute oil in a uniform oil path. Therefore, we see all the post failure bearings show less distress in upper as compared to lower. It is important to maintain groove depth and groove profile without any step and chattering. u WALL THICKNESS (I.D. BROACH): Wall thickness directly affects oil clearance between the shaft and the Bearing. In this process, four defects can occur: 1) Excess wall thickness would reduce the clearance. This increases possibility of shaft to touch bearing surface and reduce oil clearance and cause Engine seizure. Less wall thickness would result in excessive clearance and oil pressure would reduce and increase the possibility of shaft resting on bearings i.e. cap bearing. Oil will also leak from shaft without feeding other parts. Non uniform wall thickness would cause turbulence in oil flow and oil film will tend to break at times allowing the shaft to touch the bearings. Taper in wall thickness will create non-uniform oil clearance and oil flow will be affected.
2)
3)
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u NOTE: CRUSH RELIEF: This affects the engine performance the most because this has to several useful purposes. The BI-material effect of
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slight bearing cap shift is minimized so that foreign material in lubricating oil can be more easily expelled and in certain instances, the formation of a sustaining oil film is aided by the extra clearance area. As a result, all cases may lead to premature engine failure. u CRUSH HEIGHT: 1. Low crush would result in instability to the bearing pair. Pair would start flexing (moving) in position and would ultimately rotate. This would cause damage to shaft and housing and engine may seize. Excessive crush would either make bearing buckle in or distort housing cap. If crush is very much in excess a cap would not seat on housing properly leaving a gap between cap and housing surface in all these cases bearing at parting faces would cave inside and would cause failure after some period or if clearances are maintained considering top to bottom diameter, shaft wold touch the bearing sides. Even housing distortion will take place as this would result in more clearances at top and bottom and less at sides. Hence crush should be maintained according to the specifications. Excessive taper in parting line would cause the bearing pair to tilt a little bit thus causing a misassemble and variation in clearance or else one bearing would buckle inside from one portion causing shaft to touch the bearing and resulting in engine failure. Maintain proper taper and check for rock and parting line blue contact.
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u LOW SPREAD: Bearing would tend to cave in after running and would probably touch shaft at sides. Bearing spread would show reduction. Engine. Engine would probably seize. Bearing pair may rotate causing damage to shaft and housing. Spread is to be kept on higher side of tolerance.
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