1

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 NEED FOR SPEED LIMITING In this modern day world, where the catch word is SPEED, from vehicles, processors, working and people, SPEED LIMITING sounds odd. Speed breakers are found in roads to control speed of vehicles on road. But they are not effective. Sign Boards are placed by the road side in places like hospitals, educational institutions, offices, etc. stating the speed of the vehicles. But people are seen exceeding the limit in these places. The aim of this project is to limit the speed in such places.

1.2 THE WORKING Speed limiting is achieved with the help of IR transmitters mounted in these zones, where the speed code is to be followed. An array of IR LEDs is mounted on archways, erected at the place where the zone is supposed to begin and end. Each vehicle is mounted with the limit sensor, which is capable of detecting the IR rays from the archway. As the vehicle crosses the archway, the receiver section produces a corresponding voltage which is given to a signal conditioning circuit. The output of the signal conditioning circuit is given to the microprocessor, which is used to rotate a stepper motor. The stepper motor rotation causes the restriction of air-fuel mixture into the engine, thereby reducing speed.

2 1.3 BLOCK DIAGRAM

IR TRANSMITTER

IR RECEIVER

STEPPER MOTOR

CARBURETOR

Fig.1.1 Block Diagram The IR Transmitter is an IR LED. The IR Receiver consists of Photo transistor and Signal conditioning circuits. The Stepper Motor section consists of the microprocessor and the interfacing cards together with the stepper motor. The Carburetor Section consists of the vehicle fuel injection system and the restricting valve.

Fig 1.1 Detailed Block Diagram CHAPTER 2 TRANSMITTER SECTION

2.1 IR TRANSMITTER The IR transmitter is nothing but an Infra Red LED (Light Emitting diode). IR LED of wavelength 740 nm is being used here.

Fig 2.1 Infra Red LED LEDs have several advantages over conventional incandescent lamps. For one thing, they don't have a filament that will burn out, so they last much longer. Additionally, their small plastic bulb makes them a lot more durable. They also fit more easily into modern electronic circuits.

But the main advantage is efficiency. In conventional incandescent lamps, the light-production process involves generating a lot of heat (the filament must be warmed). This is completely wasted energy, unless the lamp is used as a heater, because a huge portion of the available electricity isn't going toward producing visible light. LEDs

5 generate very little heat, relatively speaking. A much higher percentage of the electrical power is going directly to generate light, which cuts down on the electricity demands considerably. Up until recently, LEDs were too expensive to use for most lighting applications because they're built around advanced semiconductor material. The price of semiconductor devices has plummeted over the past decade, however, making LEDs a more cost-effective lighting option for a wide range of situations. While they may be more expensive than incandescent lights up front, their lower cost in the long run can make them a better buy. In the future, they will play an even bigger role in the world of technology. The use of Infra-red LEDs has a very significant and distinct advantage over the conventional optical ones, for the simple reason that if optical LEDs are used as transmitters, the receivers to be used would then not only respond to the light from the LED, but also to the ambient light present in the surrounding. If the receiver were to respond to only the installed LED, then the circuitry would become more complex. Thus the use of Infra-red LEDs is much more appropriate and also makes the design simple. 2.2 EXCITATION TO THE LED The infra-red LED is excited with a pulse waveform. This pulse waveform is obtained from a standard NE 555 IC, operating in the astable mode. The use of pulse excitation for the LED has several advantages. Firstly, the IR rays from the LED are more pronounced if the excitation is a pulse waveform. Secondly, if a pulse waveform is used rather than a constant D.C. supply, the heating of the LED filament is reduced, as current does not flow all the time, hence increasing the life-time of the LED.

6 2.3 NE-555 The 555 timer is a highly stable device for generating accurate time delay or oscillation. Signetics Corporation first introduced this device as the SE555/NE 555 and it is available in two packages styles, 8-pin circular style. To-99 can or 8-pin mini DIP or as 14-pin DIP. A 8- pin mini DIP is used here. The 555 timer can be used with supply voltage in the range of +5V to +18V and can drive load upto 200 mA. It is compatible with both TTL and CMOS logic circuits. Because of the wide range of supply voltage, the 555 timer is versatile and easy to use in various applications

Fig 2.2 NE 555

2.4 INTERNAL CIRCUIT DIAGRAM Referring to the fig 2.3, three 1K internal resistors act as voltage divider, providing bias voltage of 2/3 Vcc to the upper comparator and 1/3 Vcc to the lower comparator, where Vcc is the supply voltage. Since these two voltages fix the necessary comparator threshold voltage, they also aid in determining the timing interval. It is possible to vary time electronically too, by applying a modulation voltage to the control voltage input terminal (pin 5). As no such modulation is intended here, a capacitor of 0.01F is connected (As recommended by manufacturers) between control terminal and ground to by-pass noise or ripple from the supply.

Fig 2.3 Internal Circuit Diagram of NE555

In the standby state, the output of the control flip-flop is HIGH. This makes the output LOW, because of power amplifier which is basically an inverter. A negative going trigger pulse is applied to pin 2 and should have its dc level greater than the threshold level of the lower comparator (i.e. Vcc/3). At the negative going edge of the trigger, as the trigger passes through (Vcc/3), the output of the lower comparator goes HIGH and sets the FF (Q=1, Q=0). During the positive excursion, when the threshold voltage at pin 6 passes through (2/3) Vcc, the output of the upper comparator goes HIGH and resets the FF (Q=0, Q=1).

The reset input provides a mechanism to reset the FF in a manner which overrides the effect of any instruction coming to FF from lower comparator. This overriding reset

8 is effective when the reset input is less than about 0.4V. When this reset is not used, it is returned to Vcc. The transistor Q2 is driven by an internal reference voltage Vref obtained from supply voltage Vcc.

The 555 timer can be operated in two modes, namely Monostable and Astable modes. In the monostable mode, the timer gives a HIGH output for a specified time period (which depends on the value of the timing resistor R and the timing capacitor C), after a negative trigger is given to the Trigger pin (pin 2). In the Astable mode, the timer gives a pulse output whose frequency is decided by the timing capacitor and resistor (C and R respectively).

2.5 ASTABLE OPERATION

Fig. 2.4 Operational Diagram The timer connected in astable mode is shown in the Fig 2.4. There are two timing resistors Ra and Rb. Pin 7 or discharging transistor Q1 is connected to the junction of Ra and Rb. When the power supply Vcc is connected, the external timing capacitor C charges towards Vcc with a time constant (Ra and Rb) C. During this time, output (pin 3)

9 is high (equals Vcc) as Reset R=0, Set S=1 and this combination makes Q'=0 which has unclamped the timing capacitor C.

When the capacitor voltage equals (to be precise just greater than), (2/3) Vcc the upper comparator triggers the control flip-flop so that Q'=1. This in turn, makes transistor Q1 on and capacitor C starts discharging towards ground through Rb and transistor Q1 with a time constant RbC ( neglecting the forward resistance of Q1). Current also flows into transistor Q1 through Ra. Resistors Ra and Rb must be large enough to limit this current and prevent damage to the discharge transistor Q 1. The minimum value of Ra is approximately equal to Vcc/0.2 where 0.2A is the maximum current through the on transistor Q1.

During the discharge the timing capacitor C, as it reaches (to be precise is just less than) Vcc/3, the lower comparator is triggered and at this stage S=1, R=0, which turns Q'=0. Now Q=0 unclamps the external timing capacitor C. The capacitor C is thus periodically charged and discharged between 2/3Vcc and 1/3Vcc respectively. The length of time that the output remains HIGH is the time for the capacitor to charge from 2/3V cc to 1/3Vcc. It may be calculated as follows:

Fig 2.5 Timing Diagram

vc = Vcc (1 e t / RC )

Eqn 2.1

10 The time t1 taken by the circuit to charge from 0 to (2/3) Vcc is,
2 / 3Vcc = Vcc (1 e t1 / RC ) t1 = 1.09 RC

Eqn 2.2 Eqn 2.3

And the time t2 to charge from 0 to (1/3) Vcc is, Eqn 2.4 Eqn 2.5

1 / 3Vcc = Vcc (1 e t 2 / RC ) t 2 = 0.405 RC

So the time to charge from (1/3) Vcc to (2/3) Vcc is

t HIGH = t1 t 2 t HIGH = 0.69 ( Ra + Rb )C

Eqn 2.6 Eqn 2.7

The output is low while the capacitor discharges from (2/3) Vcc to (1/3) Vcc and the voltage across the capacitor is given by

1 / 3Vcc = 2 / 3Vcc e t1 / RC )

Eqn 2.8

Solving, we get
t = 0.69 RC

Eqn 2.9

So, for the given circuit,

t LOW = 0.69 Rb C

Eqn 2.10

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CHAPTER 3 RECEIVER SECTION 3.1 SENSOR The receiver section uses an Infra-red sensor that is nothing but an Infra-red sensitive photo transistor. The photo transistors base lead is kept open. In the normal case, the photo-transistor is in the non-conducting state. When the transistor is exposed to Infra-red rays, it drives the base and hence produces a base current. This causes the transistor to go to the conduction state.

Fig 3.1 Operation of the Sensor In the ideal case, the output is 5V. But due to the inherent conduction resistance of the photo-transistor, the output is typically 1.2V. This voltage is then fed to an amplifier stage.

12 3.2 SIGNAL CONDITIONING

Fig 3.2 Amplification of the signal

The amplifier stage is essentially an Operational amplifier, in the non-inverting configuration. The gain of the Operational amplifier is governed by the following equation
Vo =Vi (1 + R f / Ri )

Eqn 3.1

The objective of the signal conditioning circuit is to give a 5V output. Hence the gain is adjusted so that the output is nearly 5V. This gives us the ratio Rf /Ri to be 4 (approximately). The resistor values are chosen as R i equal to 1K and Rf equal to 4.7 K.

The output of the signal conditioning circuit is given as input to the microprocessor stage.

13 CHAPTER 4 MICROPROCESSOR The overall objective of the microprocessor section is to acquire the output from the signal conditioning stage and detect the entry and exit of the vehicle into or out of the zone. After the detection, the microprocessor and the associated interface unit should run the stepper motor either in the forward direction or reverse direction depending on whether it has detected an entry or an exit of the vehicle. 4.1 INTERFACING TECHNIQUE The output from the signal conditioning circuit is either a HIGH (5V) or a LOW (0V). Whenever the vehicle enters or leaves the speed restricted zone, the signal conditioning circuit yields a HIGH output. Whether the vehicle enters or leaves the zone is indicated by a flag value which is included in the assembly program in the microprocessor. When the vehicle enters the speed limited zone, the flag is SET to a value of 1. When the vehicle leaves the zone, the flag value is RESET to 0. The output from the signal conditioning circuit is given as an interrupt to Port A (which is configured in the program, as an input port) of the 8255 IC of the microprocessor. While the microprocessor program is executing, If and When a HIGH appears at PORT A and the flag value is 0, then it indicates that the vehicle is just entering the zone. Hence the stepper motor needs to be rotated in the forward direction. This is accomplished by transferring the execution control of the microprocessor program to a subroutine that makes the stepper motor to rotate in the forward direction for a specified angle. When a HIGH appears at PORT A and the flag value is 1, it indicates that the vehicle is just leaving the zone. Hence the stepper motor needs to be rotated in the reverse direction. This is accomplished by transferring the execution control of the

14 microprocessor program to a subroutine that makes the stepper motor to rotate in the reverse direction for the same angle as before.

4.2 CODE MAIN SUBROUTINE Table 4.1 Main routine LABEL MNEMONICS MVI A, 00 STA 4200 MVI A, 9C OUT 0F XRA A IN 0C CPI 50 JC LOOP LDA 4200 CPI 00 JZ FORW JMP REV COMMENT Initialize flag to 0 Configuring Port A as input port Clear the accumulator Get input from Port A Wait for HIGH Check flag value Call subroutine FORW Call subroutine REV

LOOP

15 FORWARD SUBROUTINE Table 4.2 Forward Sub-routine LABEL FORW START REPT MNEMONICS MVI C,80 LXI H, LOOK UP MVI B,04 MOV A,M OUT C0 DCR C JZ END LXI D, 0303 NOP DCX D MOV A,E ORA D JNZ DELAY INX H DCR B JNZ REPT JMP START DB 09 05 06 0A XRA A MVI A,01 STA 4200 JMP LOOP COMMENT

DELAY

LOOK UP END

(Data in reverse order in case of REV) SETS THE FLAG (RESETS the FLAG In case of REV)

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4.3 PARALLEL PORT CONNECTORS (P4)

Fig 4.1 Parallel Port Connectors

Connector Used: 26 pin IDC male connector. 13 pins arranged in two rows. Pin to pin pitch distance = 2.54 mm.

17 Signal Description Table 4.3 Signal Description PIN 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 PA0 PA1 PA2 PA3 PA4 PA5 PA6 PA7 PB0 PB1 PB2 PB3 PB4 DETAILS 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 PIN DETAILS PB5 PB6 PB7 PC0 PC1 PC2 PC3 PC4 PC5 PC6 PC7 GND VCC

Signal Definition PA0-PA7 = Port A I/O lines PB0-PB7 = Port B I/O lines PC0-PC7 = Port C I/O lines The peripheral interface IC 8255 should be configured before using it for I/O operation. The mode control word to configure Port A as input is 9C.

18 The following are the I/O addresses of 8255 Table 4.4 I/O Addresses of 8255 IC NO. U3 U3 U3 U3 Function Control Register Port A Port B Port C Address 0F 0C 0D 0E

4.4 STEPPER MOTOR INTERFACING The Stepper Motor is interfaced to the Microprocessor by the add-on card VBMB013A and the motor is made to run at constant speed. VBMB-013A board is a microprocessor based stepper motor controller capable of demonstrating the various modes of stepper motor operations. This board supports stepper motor, ranging from 2 to 2Kg with operating voltages 6, 12 & 24V.The supply is given externally. Stepper motor requires logic signals of relatively high power. In this board the silicon Darlington pair (TIP 122) transistors are used to supply that required power. The driving pulses are generated by the interface circuit. The input for the interface circuit is TTL pulses generated under software control using a microprocessor trainer kit. The TTL level of pulse sequence from the data bus is translated to high voltage output pulses using a buffer 7407 with open collector. The Darlington pair transistor (TIP 122) drives the stepper motor as they withstand higher current. A 220 ohm resistor and an IN4148 diode are collected between the power supply and Darlington pair collector for supporting fly back current. The data lines D0-D3 and D4-D7 are used to drive the 8 TIP 122 available on this board. The four collector points of each TIP 122 are brought to two 5 pin connectors

19 P2 & P3 to connect two different stepper motors. With this board it is possible to connect stepper motor of torque ranging from 2 to 20Kg with operating voltage of 12, 24 & 6V.

Fig 4.2 Connection between a VBMB-13A Board to Microprocessor

Fig 4.3 Connection between a VBMB-13A to Power Supply

20 CHAPTER 5 AUTOMOBILE SECTION The end objective of speed limiting in the vehicle is accomplished in the carburetor of the automobile. Here, the air-fuel mixture that is being injected into the engine is limited. A valve is fitted to the outlet of the carburetor. The stepper motor is coupled to the stem of the valve. In the normal case (when the vehicle is outside the zone), the valve is fully open. The forward rotation of the stepper motor closes the valve to a certain extent, thereby limiting the amount of combustion mixture that enters the engine, which in turn limits the speed of the vehicle. The reverse rotation of the stepper motor restores the valve to its normal position. 5.1 CARBURETOR PRINCIPLE The carburetor is a device which mixes air and fuel for an internal-combustion engine. Carburetors are still found in small engines and in older or specialized automobiles such as those designed for stock car racing. However, most cars built since the early 1980s use computerized electronic fuel injection instead of carburetion. The majority of motorcycles still are carbureted due to lower weight and cost. The carburetor works on Bernoulli's principle: the fact that moving air has lower pressure than still air, and that the faster the movement of the air, the lower the pressure. Generally, the throttle or accelerator does not control the flow of liquid fuel. Instead, it controls the amount of air that enters the carburetor. Faster flows of air and more air entering the carburetor draws more fuel into the carburetor due to the partial vacuum that is created.

BERNOULLIS PRINCIPLE Bernoulli's principle states that in fluid flow, an increase in velocity occurs simultaneously with decrease in pressure. This principle is a simplification of Bernoulli's equation which states that the sum of all forms of energy in a fluid flowing along an enclosed path is the same at any two points in that path. It is named after the Dutch/Swiss

21 mathematician/scientist Daniel Bernoulli, though it was previously understood by Leonhard Euler and others. For a mathematical formulation, see Bernoulli's equation. In a fluid flow with no viscosity, and therefore one in which a pressure difference is the only accelerating force, it is equivalent to Newton's laws of motion. It is important to note that the only cause of the change in fluid velocity is the difference in pressures either side of it. It is very common for the Bernoulli Effect to be quoted as if it states that a change in velocity causes a change in pressure. The Bernoulli principle does not make this statement and it is not the case. A common model used to demonstrate the Bernoulli Effect is a convergent, divergent nozzle also called a venturi. This is simply a large diameter tube feeding into a smaller diameter tube and then further feeding into another larger tube. Venturis are easier to understand when considering a gas rather than a liquid, but the functions for either are much the same. In order for any gas flow to occur it is essential that the exit pressure is lower than the entry pressure for this system. This pressure difference causes the fluid to accelerate from the intake larger tube into the smaller tube. The stored spring energy available to the fluid because of the pressure difference results in the fluid not only expanding as it goes from higher to lower pressure, but effectively overshooting in its expansion as a result of the mass of the gas particles and compressibility of the gas, springing apart beyond the point where all the forces would be balanced. Before the fluid can spring back, there is more fluid behind it, also at this lower pressure. This first sample of fluid then has no pressure difference either side of it to cause it to spring back. This part of the fluid then remains at a lower pressure until it merges with the slower fluid in the exit tube. The pressure in the exit tube will be higher than that in the smaller middle tube, and so the fluid moving from the smaller to larger tube is slowed down by this pressure difference.

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Fig 5.1 The Venturi in a Carburetor 5.2 OPERATION Inside a carburetor is a venturi, Fig 5.1. The venturi is a restriction inside the carburetor that forces air to speed up to get through. A river that suddenly narrows can be used to illustrate what happens inside a carburetor. The water in the river speeds up as it gets near the narrowed shores and will get faster if the river narrows even more. The same thing happens inside the carburetor. The air that is speeding up will cause atmospheric pressure to drop inside the carburetor. The faster the air moves, the lower the pressure inside the carburetor. Most motorcycle carburetor circuits are governed by throttle position and not by engine speed. There are five main metering systems inside most motorcycle carburetors. These metering circuits overlap each other and they are: pilot circuit throttle valve needle jet and jet needle main jet choke circuit

23 The pilot circuit has two adjustable parts, fig 5.2. The pilot air screw and pilot jet. The air screw can be located either near the back side of the carburetor or near the front of the carburetor. If the screw is located near the back, it regulates how much air enters the circuit. If the screw is turned in, it reduces the amount of air and richens the mixture. If it is turned out, it opens the passage more and allows more air into the circuit which results in a lean mixture. If the screw is located near the front, it regulated fuel. The mixture will be leaner if it is screwed in and richer if screwed out. If the air screw has to be turned more than two turns out for best idling, the next smaller size pilot jet will be needed.

Fig. 5.2 Pilot Circuit The pilot jet is the part which supplies most of the fuel at low throttle openings. It has a small hole in it which restricts fuel flow though it. Both the pilot air screw and pilot jet affects carburetion from idle to around 1/4 throttle. The slide valve affects carburetion between 1/8 thru 1/2 throttle. It especially affects it between 1/8 and 1/4 and has a lesser affect up to 1/2. The slides come in various

24 sizes and the size is determined by how much cutaway from the backside of it, fig 5.3 is. The larger the cutaway, the leaner the mixture (since more air is allowed through it) and the smaller the cutaway, the richer the mixture will be. Throttle valves have numbers on them that explains how much the cutaway is. If there is a 3 stamped into the slide, it has a 3.0mm cutaway, while a 1 will have a 1.0mm cutaway (which will be richer than a 3).

Fig 5.3 The Slide Cutaway The jet needle and needle jet affects carburetion from 1/4 thru 3/4 throttle. The jet needle is a long tapered rod that controls how much fuel can be drawn into the carburetor venturi. The thinner the taper, the richer the mixture. The thicker the taper, the leaner the mixture since the thicker taper will not allow as much fuel into the venturi as a leaner one. The tapers are designed very precisely to give different mixtures at different throttle openings. Jet needles have grooves cut into the top. A clip goes into one of these grooves and holds it from falling or moving from the slide. The clip position can be changed to make an engine run richer or leaner, fig 5.4. If the engine needs to run leaner, the clip would be moved higher. This will drop the needle farther down into the needle jet and cause less fuel to flow past it. If the clip is lowered, the jet needle is raised and the mixture will be richer. The needle jet is where the jet needle slides into. Depending on the inside diameter of the needle jet, it will affect the jet needle. The needle jet and jet needle work together to control the fuel flow between the 1/8 thru 3/4 range. Most of the tuning for this range is done to the jet needle, and not the needle jet.

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Fig 5.4 Jet Needle 5.3 FUEL INJECTION CONTROL The main jet controls fuel flow from 3/4 through full throttle, fig 5.5. Once the throttle is opened far enough, the jet needle is pulled high enough out of the needle jet and the size of the hole in the main jet begins to regulate fuel flow. Main jets have different size holes in them and the bigger the hole, the more fuel that will flow (and the richer the mixture). Higher the number on the main jet, the more fuel that can flow through it and the richer the mixture.

Fig 5.5 Main Jet and Fuel Flow

26 A tap like restriction is placed in the outlet stream of the carburetor. This valve is coupled to the stepper motor. When the stepper motor rotates in the forward direction, the valve restricts the flow of the air-fuel mixture to some extent and so the speed is limited. When the stepper motor reverses direction, the valve opens and so normal flow is resumed.

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CHAPTER 6 CONCLUSION The project has so far introduced the concept of a speed limit in critical zones like hospitals, educational institutions, etc. By this, the project offers a wide range of prospects for the future. This technique can be made generic to suit all kinds of places of vehicular traffic and can be made global. The concept of a nominal speed limit in such critical zones can be extended to traffic-dependent speed limits in various zones. For example, highways can have maximum speed limit, arterial roads in cities can have a moderate speed limit, while congested roads can have minimum speed limit. This can be realized by using transmitters of different wavelengths in the different zones. The signal conditioning needs minimal modification to accomplish this logic. If this is realized, it will result in great reduction of accidents on roads and regular movement on traffic on all kinds of roads. Also, the need for traffic regulating personnel on the roads would then become antiquated. For realizing multiple speed zones, transmitters with different wavelengths can be used. The wavelength content can be decoded by the sensor with appropriate filter circuits. A simple circuit to realize this logic could be a phase locked loop without feedback. This can give a voltage proportional to the frequency of the transmitter. Then this voltage can be conditioned and given to the microprocessor. The assembly program needs a slight modification to implement the new logic.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Gaonkar R.S Microprocessor Architecture Programming and application Wiley Eastern Ltd., New Delhi, 1995. 2. Roy Choudhury and Shail Jain, Linear Integrated Circuits Gupta & Co., (1995). 3. Sergio Franco, Design with Operational Amplifiers and Analog Integrated Circuits, 2nd Edition Tata McGraw Hill, New Delhi, 1997. 4. S. Tomweather, Automotive Electronics Tata McGraw Hill Publishers, New Delhi, 1999. 5. Web Reference wikipedia.org, carbresearch.com