1

MANAGING MINDFULLY: BUDDHISM AND BUSINESS

PART 1: BACKGROUND AND HISTORY Preface: 2 notes: 5 Chapter 1: Introduction: 5 Appendix 1: 14 notes: 16 Chapter 2: The History of Buddhism and Management : Indian Buddhism, Business, and Economics, Chinese Buddhism and Commerce, History of Zen and Management in Japan, The Short History of Buddhist Management in America, Contemporary American Buddhism and Business Practice: 17 notes: 61 Table 1: 67 Appendix 2: 69. Chapter 3: Mindfulness, Work, and the Self: Types of desire, The development of craving, Conception and the birth of the self, Mindfulness 71 notes: 101 PART 2: INDIVIDUALS IN BUSINESSES, BUSINESS IN SOCIETY Chapter 4: Getting and Using Money: Right Livelihood, Acquiring and using wealth mindfully, The effects of charity 106 Appendix 3: 124 notes: 131 Chapter 5: The Effective Business Organization: Encouraging Competitiveness, DecisionMaking, Leadership, Marketing and Advertising, Accounting and Auditing 133 notes: 167 Chapter 6: A Buddhist Economics? Religion and Economics, Buddhism and Economics, Buddhism and the Varieties of Capitalism, Monasticism and Economic Growth, Business Buddhism and the Environment 170 Appendix 4: 197 notes: 201 Chapter 7: Conclusion: The Future of American Buddhism and Business The Emergence of an American Form of Buddhism, Mindful Business Organizations? Mindfulness in the Business Organizations of the Future, Prodigal Sons 205 Appendix 5: 222 notes: 219 Bibliography: 224 Table 1: 67 Appendix 1: 14 Appendix 2: 69 Appendix 3: 124 Appendix 4: 197 Appendix 5: 222

2 PREFACE Some Buddhists who write about business offer their own lives as evidence that Buddhism improves your effectiveness at your work. In my own case, the story is more complex. In brief, I taught and studied management for 22 years, until my retirement in 1997, and I have been studying Buddhism and practicing meditation for approximately 30 years. I began my practice in Zen Buddhism and later began to read the Pali Canon, which is a record of the Buddhas teachings during his lifetime, approximately 2600 years ago. My practice is now grounded in Zen meditation but includes meditation techniques discussed in the Pali Canon, techniques that are associated with Vipassana practice. I will discuss these different forms of Buddhism in more detail in the first chapter of this book. My efforts at applying Buddhism to my work can be summarized using two quotations. The first is from Zen Mind, Beginners Mind, by Japanese Zen roshi Shunryu Suzuki: When you do something, you should burn yourself completely, like a good bonfire, leaving no trace of yourself....1 In both sitting meditation and work, I strive to focus on the task without thinking excessively about how the outcome of the work will affect me. When planning work, I try to plan mindfully and think about outcomes without encouraging myself to become attached to them. I attempt to become lost in my work, in the good sense. The second quotation is from Instructions to the Chief Cook, written by the 13th century founder of Japanese Soto Zen Buddhism, Dogen Zenji. It reads, When working in any position of responsibility. . . .strive to maintain a spirit of joy and magnanimity.2 I was lucky to find a job that I could do with sincerity and commitment (though not always with joy) for 16 years. However, by the end of my time as a college professor, changes in higher education, and

3 especially business education, made it impossible for me to continue with my career. Because of these concerns, I found administrative work nearly impossible to do in the spirit suggested by Dogen. In the end, I resigned. I was fortunate that I was compensated more than fairly for my work and that the favorable investment climate during the 1990s made it possible to accumulate enough savings to retire. At the time I retired, my wife had had multiple sclerosis for 13 years and I found it more meaningful to spend time with her than to continue working in academia. Though I have had some success in my professional life, I am not sure my own life demonstrates that Buddhism allows you to do your job more effectively. In my case, it helped me to work more effectively early in my career and later it helped me to know when it was time to quit. I have found the research and writing I have done since retirement meaningful and I credit Buddhism with helping me identify topics and questions that are genuinely important. This book is one example. I first became interested in this topic in the late 1970s when I read Zen and Creative Management by Albert Low. Since then, I have found over 20 books and 100 articles written in English on Buddhism and work. I will draw on these, as well as the insights of business executives and scholars, and my own experience teaching and studying management, to explore fundamental questions about how Buddhism relates to business practice. I am grateful to my wife, Susan Rhodes, for her help on all aspects of this book. Many of the ideas in it were developed or refined by her. D.K. Holm also deserves thanks. Though he is not a Buddhist, he is a clear thinker and a good editor. John Pierce and Valerie Allison also provided helpful comments on earlier drafts of the book.

4 1. Suzuki, S. 1970. Zen Mind, Beginners Mind. New York: Weatherhill, p. 62 2. Uchiyama, K. 1983. Refining Your Life. New York: Weatherhill, p. 16

5 CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION How does spiritual practice relate to work? This question has been at the back of my mind for my entire working life and I know a great many people who also consider it a central question in their own lives. That is why I have written this book about the relationship between spiritual practice and earning a living. I dont claim that this topic is important to everyone. I have friends who have no religious beliefs at all but still do their work and live their lives ethically and successfully. However, for those who do have a spiritual practice, this question is inescapable. Work and religion are separate domains in most peoples lives and many of us are committed to integrating them. Interest in the spiritual aspects of work has spawned a great many seminars, books, and journals, particularly in the last several years. Perhaps interest in integrating religious life and work has increased in recent years because many believe we have paid too little attention to spiritual and ethical values in our work lives. In the first 3 years of the 21st century, Americans witnessed a steep decline in the fortunes of high-technology companies, and a growing number of scandals involving financial fraud at some of the most visible firms in the U. S. Those who have a stake in these companies, including employees, investors, auditors, managers, analysts, and the business news media, became identified with these companies and invested their selves in the companies success. Investors and employees have come to feel personally betrayed by the behavior of these companies. These scandals have lead business scholars, policymakers, and others to call for improving the ethical values prevailing in the corporate community.1 All religions offer insights for helping people to act on their ethical values in their businesses. Buddhism, however, provides a unique perspective on business ethics by helping us

6 understand how we come to invest our selves in work roles. Mindfully examining how we become committed to companies, corporate vision, and ideologies can help us remain true to our ethical values and make better business and life decisions. Mindfulness is also necessary in studying the relationship between Buddhism and business. Sincere Buddhists throughout history have developed diverse and sometimes contradictory views about commerce. We must mindfully examine the statements of past Buddhist practitioners and teachers in order to come to our own conclusions on this critically important topic. In the two decades I taught management, I was sometimes frustrated by the faddishness of management advice. As a student of Buddhism, however, I found that contemplating management fads helped me understand the nature of impermanence, one of the central tenets of Buddhism. New ideas arise and fade, not because they are disproved, but because people lose interest in them. Because of the faddishness of popular management writing and the fact that management insights fade very quickly, there is a market for books that claim to bring the timeless wisdom of Buddhism to modern management practice. I will discuss a number of such books here, but mine is not one of them. Buddhism provides no certain and eternal answers to questions about how we should earn our living or spend our money. Buddhists in different times and in different countries have developed different answers by thoughtfully applying Buddhism to their own times and circumstances. In this book, I will discuss issues raised in previous writing on Buddhism, economics, and management, starting with the Buddhas own words about the way he managed his large and growing following during his lifetime and the advice he gave to his lay followers about the conduct of their businesses.

7 I do not claim that Buddhism contains timeless wisdom for modern businesspeople, nor that the Buddha should be an example to modern managers. On some topics, such as leadership, the Buddhas practices contradict current management practice. Readers will have to judge for themselves whether the Buddhas words and actions provide any guidelines for the conduct of their own business and lives. I will describe the basic tenets of Buddhism, discuss the ways Buddhists have applied these tenets to their own historical circumstances, and attempt to draw conclusions and pose questions for the future of Buddhist management. Very Basic Buddhism The Buddhas life has been recounted many times and I want to give only the essential details here. Those interested in more information should consult one of the many biographies of the Buddha. The ones I found most useful were in Indian Buddhism2 and The Historical Buddha.3 The Buddha was born roughly 2570 years ago in what is now Nepal. He was a prince and a member of the warrior class and he was wealthy enough that he did not have to work for a living. His parents attempted to protect him from knowledge of old age, disease, and death (representing the suffering involved in living). However, when he was in his late 20s, he left the protected grounds of his palace and came in contact with an old man, a sick person, and a corpse, after which, he saw a wandering monk, and became convinced that the monastic life was the only way for him to deal with the suffering of life that he had just observed. He renounced his wealth and family, including a wife and young son, and undertook training as a wandering ascetic. After several years of training, including extreme ascetic practices, he abandoned self-mortification for a more moderate approach he called the middle way, which eventually led to his enlightenment. After this, he taught and trained monks and laymen until his death at the age of eighty.

8 Throughout this manuscript, I will discuss the Buddha as though he really existed. Though there is evidence to support this assumption, it is not certain. I have included a discussion of the reasons for assuming the Buddha really existed in Appendix 1. Like Christianity and other world religions, Buddhism is practiced in a variety of ways. Early in its history, two major schools developed, the Theravada and the Mahayana. Mahayana Buddhism later divided into a great many sects including Pure Land, Chan, and Zen. I will discuss these different schools in more detail in the next chapter. Though Buddhism has taken many forms in its 2600-year history, Buddhists believe that there is a core of truth connecting them all to the enlightenment experience of the Buddha. Here, I will attempt to identify the central beliefs with which most Buddhists would agree. The central tenet of Buddhism is that everything, all of the material world and all of human experience, is impermanent and empty of real substance or self. At the time of his enlightenment, the Buddha understood that clinging to anything impermanent leads to suffering, and that we can escape suffering by learning to be constantly mindful of emptiness and impermanence. He summarized his insights in The Four Noble Truths. These are 1) the truth of suffering, 2) suffering is caused by craving and clinging, 3) it is possible to escape from suffering, 4) there is an eightfold path that leads us out of suffering. Formal meditation (broadly defined) is part of all forms of Buddhism, but Buddhism is meant to be practiced during all of lifes activities, including work. Buddhists aspire to do everything mindfully. This means carrying out all activities without clinging. The most potentially dangerous kind of clinging is clinging to the concept of a self. Therefore, Buddhists try to be mindful of the emptiness of the concept of self. This is especially important when working, since it helps us avoid greed and self-centeredness.

9 We all know what the term, mindfulness means in general but it has a specific definition in Buddhism. Buddhist mindfulness involves watching everything that comes into your consciousness carefully, every physical sensation, every feeling, and every thought, without getting caught up in any of them. This means not clinging to the things that are pleasant nor trying to suppress those that are unpleasant, a practice sometimes called bare attention.4 While working, we practice bare attention by carefully observing all aspects of the work and our reactions to them. This may require us to slow down and carefully observe the details of the work which we usually do automatically. For example, while writing, I might slow down and become more aware of the movement of my fingers on the computer keyboard. This type of mindfulness is necessary but not sufficient for doing work effectively. In addition, it is necessary to practice clear comprehension, which has two important aspects, clear comprehension of what is beneficial and clear comprehension of what is suitable5 Clear comprehension of what is beneficial allows a person to decide between goals on the basis of which is most likely to reduce suffering in the long run and bring all beings to enlightenment. For example, it is sometimes useful to slow down when working in order to observe the work more carefully, but it is also beneficial to finish our work in a reasonable amount of time. We refine our clear comprehension of benefit as we continually make choices about the way we will conduct our work and personal lives. Clear comprehension of suitability allows a person to tell how to accomplish beneficial acts and when they are appropriate. For example, Silananda discusses clear comprehension of suitability when talking about Buddhist teachings. Normally, telling others about the Buddhas teachings is beneficial both to the person giving the talk and to the people listening to it. However, when there are crowds and when there is some sort of merry-making going on, then it

10 is neither a suitable time nor a suitable place to give such a talk.6 Like many Buddhists, I have always been eager to share Buddhism with others and incorporate it into my work. However, a number of experiences have helped me realize that this is not always suitable. For example, I once attempted to incorporate Buddhism into a research project on Japanese management,7 only to be told by the lead author that religion has no place in management research. Such experiences help us to develop clear comprehension of when and where it is suitable to talk about Buddhism. These are the basic elements of mindfulness, which is easy to describe, but more difficult to practice. The Buddha and later Buddhists have developed practices and precepts to help in the cultivation of mindfulness. Theravada Buddhism is the earliest form of Buddhism and is summarized in the Pali Canon, a record of the Buddhas life and teaching in the Pali language, which is similar to the language the Buddha spoke. I will use excerpts from the Pali Canon extensively in this book. In Theravada Buddhism, rules for the behavior of laypeople are expressed in the Eightfold Path and the five precepts.8 In the Mahayana tradition, including Zen Buddhism, rules are expressed in a set of ten precepts.9 The eightfold path begins with Right Understanding, which is formally defined as understanding the Four Noble Truths. The second step is Right Thought or Resolve, defined as the resolve to give up harming other living beings and cultivating compassion. The third step is Right Speech, abstaining from harsh speech, slander, lying, and idle speech or gossip. The fourth step is Right Action, abstaining from killing, stealing, and sexual misconduct. The fifth step is Right Livelihood, avoiding all occupations that harm living beings, including dealing in weapons, alcohol, drugs, or slaves. The sixth step is Right Effort, which involves concentration, hard work, and persistence in cultivating wholesome behavior. The seventh step is Right Mindfulness, continuous awareness of the four foundations of mindfulness, the body, feelings, thoughts, and

11 objects of thought. Finally, the eighth step is Right Concentration or Absorption, one-pointedness of mind. The five precepts in the Buddhism of this period were common to monks and laypeople. As in the ten Judeo-Christian commandments, the most important of these precepts are given first. They are: 1) not killing, 2) not stealing, 3) not lying or engaging in other harmful speech, 4) not engaging in sexual misconduct, 5) not taking alcohol or drugs that cause heedlessness. Five additional precepts embraced by many modern Buddhists include: 6) not discussing the faults of others, 7) not praising yourself and defaming others, 8) not withholding Dharma, 9) not indulging in anger, 10) not defaming the Buddha, Dharma (teachings), or Sangha (the community of believers). These basic principles form the basis of the discussion of the relationship between Buddhism and business. However, as I will show in this book, they have been interpreted differently to suit different historical circumstances. Outline of the Book This book is divided into two sections. The first section, including this chapter and Chapters 2 and 3, provides background for the second section, where I explore specific questions about Buddhism, business, and the economy. Chapter 2 provides the basis for understanding mindfulness in the workplace. I begin with a discussion of desire, craving and clinging and how they lead to the delusion that the self is real and substantial. This delusion leads us to cling to our social identities in harmful ways. The first section concludes with a discussion of mindfulness as applied to personal identity. Chapter 3 deals with the evolving relationship between Buddhism and commerce as Buddhism moved from India to China, Japan, and America. At the end of this chapter, I will

12 discuss recent books on Buddhism, work, and management. These books offer differing advice and we have to mindfully examine what they say in order to come to our own conclusions. I hope this chapter shows that Buddhism has evolved dramatically over time and that there are differences of opinion among sincere Buddhists about issues facing businesses today. How should Buddhists use this information to reflect their beliefs in their own work? This touches on the central features of Buddhism, the practice of mindfulness and the conception of personal identity as applied to work. I hope readers will be able to use this material from the first section to mindfully consider the questions raised in the second section of the book and reach their own conclusions. The second section, composed of Chapters 4 through 7, covers a number of important topics about individuals, businesses, and society. Chapter 4 deals with how Buddhists working in business should get and use money. Chapter 5 describes practices and procedures that make for an effective business. These include topics related to management (encouraging competitiveness, decision-making, and leadership), topics related to marketing, and those related to accounting and auditing. Chapter 6 discusses issues related to business and public policy, including the relationship between Buddhism and economic policy, whether American or Japanese capitalism is more consistent with Buddhism, whether monasticism reduces economic growth, and the relationship between business and social action (what has come to be called Engaged Buddhism), especially on the relationship between business and environmental destruction. Chapter 7 provides a conclusion and discusses the contributions of Buddhism to organizations of the future, organizations that will be composed of teams operating across borders mediated by electronic communication. In these virtual organizations, issues of identity will become crucial. In the

13 conclusion, I discuss the story of the prodigal son, found in both Buddhism and Christianity, as a lesson in the right attitude toward work. Conclusion: Some Good Questions Throughout this book, I will address important questions about Buddhism and business practice. Was the Buddha against the accumulation of wealth? Is Buddhism inconsistent with the competitive spirit of capitalism? Did the Buddha advocate the practice simple living? Is Buddhism green; must Buddhists be environmentalists? Are Buddhist teachings about management the same in all countries; for example, in the U.S. and Japan? I will try to answer these and other questions in this book. As I considered these questions, additional questions occurred to me. Though I have not been able to answer these additional questions, I think they are, in some sense, better questions than the ones I do answer. I have listed of these questions at the end of each chapter. The real benefit of mindful inquiry for me is not that it provides answers but that it enables me to ask better questions. I think the capacity for asking good questions is one thing that distinguishes great Buddhist teachers. Dogen Zenji asked a question in his Fukanzazenji (Zazen Rules) that I have found very helpful to my training over the last several decades, Why are training and enlightenment differentiated since the Truth is universal? Why study the means to attaining it since the supreme teaching is free?10

14 APPENDIX 1: DID THE BUDDHA REALLY EXIST? I have been talking about the Buddha as though he was a real person. I should probably explain why, and I can do so by contrasting Buddhism with Christianity. For Christians, the question of whether Jesus actually lived is of central importance. The Christian faith is based on the belief that Jesus was born, died, and rose again. If this is not true, it undermines the foundations of the Christian faith. It is, of course, difficult to find archaeological evidence for the existence of Jesus because he was a poor and relatively obscure man during his 3-year ministry and there are usually few historical records on common people. In Buddhism, the situation is quite different. The Buddha was not a god and he did not rise from the dead. He gave no commandments but merely pointed the way to enlightenment which people had to follow on their own. When he was dying, the Buddha told his followers to be lamps unto yourselves. Therefore, if the Buddha was not a real, historical figure, it doesnt matter a great deal; Buddhist teachings can be evaluated on their own merits, regardless of who first expressed them. To my knowledge, there is no direct historical evidence for the existence of the Buddha. However, I believe there is indirect evidence in the Pali Canon. The Pali Canon contains the oldest Buddhist writings and it is the scripture of the Theravada school of Buddhism. The word Theravada is often translated as the doctrine of the Elders, and the Theravada Buddhists believe the Pali Canon contains the original teachings delivered by the Buddha. It is a collection of rules, stories, and sermons written in Pali, the language probably spoken by the Buddha. During his 50-year ministry, tens of thousands of people joined his order and devoted their time to meditation, teaching, and reciting the words of the Buddha. Several hundred years after his death, these words were first written down.

15 As might be expected, the Buddha gave a great many more sermons during his 50-year ministry than did Jesus in his 3-year ministry. The Pali Canon is over 5 times as long as the entire Christian Bible, of which Christs words comprise only a small part. I believe I see a thematic continuity in the Pali Canon suggesting that there was a single intelligence behind it. For convenience, I refer to this intelligence as the Buddha. I believe there was an individual who is the source of much (though not all) of the Pali Canon. The Pali Canon does not read like it was written by a committee; and those of you who have worked in committees will understand what I mean. However, the teachings must be evaluated on their own merits, regardless of their origins. There are reasons to believe that the Pali Canon is the collection of writings that most closely represents what the historical Buddha himself taught. If I want to describe the basics of Buddhism, or mere Buddhism (as C.S. Lewis once famously described mere Christianity) it seems that I should focus on the Pali Canon because Buddhists from all traditions accept it, if not as the purest expression of Buddhism, at least as the earliest.

16 1.For example the Academy of Management, a professional organization of business academics, recently issued a series of papers entitled The Crisis of Corporate Confidence. see Academy of Management Executive, August, 2002, pp. 138-149. 2. Warder, A. 1970. Indian Buddhism. Delhi, India: Motilal Banarsidass. 3. Schuman, H. 1989. The Historical Buddha. London, England: Penguin. 4. Thera, N. 1979. The Heart of Buddhist Meditation. New York: Samuel Weiser, pp. 30-46. 5. Silananda, U.1990. The Four Foundations of Mindfulness. Boston, MA.: Wisdom Publications. pp. 50-55; Thera, 1979, pp. 46-55. 6. Silananda, 1990, p.53. 7. Cosier, R., Schwenk, C. & Dalton, D.1992. Managerial decision making in Japan, the U.S., and Hong Kong. International Journal of Conflict Management, 3: 151-160. 8. See Payutto, P. & Olson, G.1995. Buddhadhamma. Albany, N.Y: SUNY Press; Silananda, U. 1990. The Four Foundations of Mindfulness. Boston, MA.: Wisdom Publications; Warder, ibid. 9. See Aitken, R. 1984. The Mind of Clover. San Francisco, CA.: North Point Press. 10. I took this translation from Kennett, J. 1976. Zen is Eternal Life. Emeryville, CA.: Dharma Publications, p. 287. It is similar to the translations in Yokoi (Yokoi, Y.1981. Zen Master Dogen. New York: Weatherhill, p. 45) and Cook (Cook, F. 1978. How to Raise an Ox. Los Angeles, CA.: Center Publications, p. 95). Some translations, however, like those of Nishiyama (Nishiyama, 1975, Dogens Shobogenzo (Vol. 1). Tokyo: Nakayama Shobo, p. 39) and Tanahashi (Tanahashi, N. 1985. Moon in a Dewdrop: The Writings of Zen Master Dogen. San Francisco, CA.: North Point Press. p. 29), do not include this question.

17 CHAPTER 2: BUDDHISM AND BUSINESS FROM THE 6TH CENTURY B.C. TO THE 21ST CENTURY A.D. Buddhists over the last two and one-half millennia have developed radically different views of the relationship between Buddhism, commerce, and work. In order to understand these differences, it is necessary to consider the history of Buddhism and commerce. My discussion of this topic will show that Buddhism supported the growth of trade and commerce in Northern India, was transformed by Confucianism and Taoism in China, and transformed again as it entered Japan. I will conclude with a discussion of Buddhism in American business and reviews of recent books on the topic. Some Good Questions I will attempt to answer a number of questions in this chapter. These include, How has the relationship between business and Buddhism changed as Buddhism moved from India through China, Japan, and America? Is there a Buddhist position on commerce and money lending? Has Japanese nationalism corrupted Japanese Zen? Has American commerce corrupted American Buddhism? What are the differences in the interpretation of Buddhism among those who have written on the topic? At the end of the chapter, after I have answered these questions, I will offer better questions for consideration. Indian Buddhism, Business, and Economics During the time of the Buddha, the Paurava empire that had ruled northern India for several centuries collapsed. At that time, there were 16 individual states in what is now India and Nepal, as well as smaller principalities, and the Paurava empire had been reduced to one of the smaller and weaker states. These states had a wide range of governments. Some were absolute

18 monarchies, while others resembled what we would call republics. There were frequent wars between these states, the two most powerful of which were the kingdom of Magadha and the republic of Vrji. Though different states developed different approaches to government, the general trend was toward centralization.1 The Brahmanical or Vedic tradition did little to help rulers select successful military, governmental, and economic policies. Buddhism was one of many alternative spiritual practices that developed at this time. It was especially popular among the rising merchant class. During these years, industry and trade were expanding, and the economy became more monetized. Instead of measuring wealth in land, cattle, and other goods, it could be measured in money. Some merchants became richer than monarchs. One of the suttas in the Pali Canon describes a merchant who accumulated millions of gold and silver coins by the end of his life, which would not have been possible unless there was an ample supply of coinage. The good fortunes of some merchants may have accompanied a decline in the fortunes of others. According to Warder, In this society, most people found their freedom seriously and increasingly restricted, their property and their lives insecure, the future uncertain and probably worse than the past.2 Thus, the Buddha was born into a world of revolutionary social and economic change. The Buddha was a spiritual teacher, but he also had managerial skills, which is evident from the way he led his monastic order. In a sense, he was from a family of administrators. He was a member of a social class whose members were traditionally warriors but also responsible for administration. The Buddhas own father, for example, was a king who was responsible for local government. As a young man, the Buddha may have listened to his fathers discussions and

19 debates with other local leaders aboutadministrative decisions. This early experience stood the Buddha in good stead as he developed the rules for a monastic order that has survived for over 2500 years. The group (or sangha) the Buddha ran was neither a business nor a government organization. It was most like what we would call a volunteer or Third Sector organization. It was not exactly a monastic order in the Western sense. However, its members did seem to agree to the three most important principles of Christian monasticism: poverty, chastity, and obedience. Since they were dependent on householders for material support, they taught and counseled members of the lay community but did not live among them. The Buddha made a clear distinction between two kinds of Buddhist trainees; householders and those who pursue the homeless life. He realized that sustaining a home is part of sustaining an identity. The Buddha called his disciples those who have left home because they did not mindlessly identify with any location or any conception of self. Initially, the Buddha did not want members of the sangha to have fixed dwellings in the rainy season. However, he agreed to allow this later, and many of the senior disciples commented that having shelters was a very important aid to their training since the huts gave them protection from the fury of the sky deva. During the dry season, the monks essentially lived outdoors, but during the monsoon season they built temporary huts of bamboo and leaves. The traditional huts in which disciples lived were a like camping tents, large enough to stand up and lie down in but very simple; a temporary dwelling rather than a home. One disciple who had been a potter built a clay hut and fired it from the inside. When the Buddha was informed of this, he ordered the hut destroyed.

20 The Buddha prohibited the construction of permanent dwellings and even the growing of gardens, requiring the monks to beg for food and scavenge clothing from garbage heaps. He felt that owning a dwelling and working to pay for it leads to attachment to goals, envisioning objectives, and working toward them. Also, members of the sangha took vows of poverty that prevented them from owning property. However, over time the sangha acquired property from lay devotees and developed settled monastic communities. As Buddhism spread from northern India, monks living in different countries and contexts came to live in fixed dwellings. Wealthy individuals constructed buildings as gathering places and temples dedicated to the memory of the Buddha and his teachings. The responsibilities of work and family life can be like dust that obscures the purity of our training. When someone asked the Buddha whether it was better to abandon the householders life, he answered that a person can do good training in either life but that some people find the householders life is full of dust (meaning distractions) and that the homeless life can be less dusty (see for example the Samannaphala Sutta (the Fruits of the Homeless Life).3 As people fulfill the demands of the householders life, they can become mindlessly committed to the householders identity. Some of the Buddhas disciples felt that money itself is the dust that obscures our perception of the right approach to training. For example, one disciple, Ratthapala, came from a wealthy family but chose the homeless life. His parents wanted him to come back to the life of commerce and wealth, so they arranged for a huge heap of gold coins (and other temptations) to be offered to him if he would abandon the homeless life of the Buddha. Ratthapala showed admirable restraint in turning down the wealth (and other temptations) and he told his parents that they should load all the gold into wagons and dump it into the middle stream of the Ganges

21 river, meaning that they should destroy it because wealth is a curse. He said, from wealth will come, grief, sorrow, suffering, lamentation, and despair.4 For monks in the Buddhas time, this may have been true. However, for later Buddhists, wealth was not generally considered a cause for despair, but for joy. The Buddha was mainly concerned with monks but he did give advice to laypeople about how to train in the householders life. The most complete discussion of this advice is found in the Sigalaka Sutta, which I have included in Appendix 2. I will cover some of this advice under the heading of specific topics in later chapters. In summary, early Indian Buddhism was characterized by a fundamental distinction between lay people, who engaged in commercial activity, and monks, who did not. Monks lived entirely on donations from laypeople. This distinction led to very different approaches to training for monks and laypeople. However, the distinction began to break down as the Mahayana school of Buddhism developed. Between about 100 B.C. and 100 A.D., four to six centuries after the Buddhas death, the Sangha began to divide into two rival groups, one of which emphasized newer scriptures that were not included in the original Pali Canon and were written in Sanskrit rather than Pali. This group eventually developed a distinct doctrinal focus and came to be called the Mahayana school.5 The word Mahayana means great vehicle, and those devoted to this school believed that the newer scriptures were given by the Buddha as a vehicle to carry all people to enlightenment, not only those who were fortunate enough to become monks. Mahayana devotees unkindly called the rival group Hinayana, meaning small vehicle. They claimed that members of this group embraced a doctrine that was like a small vehicle capable of carrying only themselves to

22 enlightenment. The devotees of the rival school of Buddhism called themselves Theravada, meaning doctrine of the Elders, to emphasize their adherence to the original teachings of the Buddha in the Pali Canon. The Mahayana scriptures are called collectively the Prajnaparamita sutras, a term usually translated as Perfection of Wisdom.6 The most famous of these are the Heart Sutra7 and the Diamond Sutra8 and their most famous interpreter was Nagarjuna, an Indian monk who, according to tradition, was given the Prajnaparamita sutras by the Nagas, serpents who were wiser than human beings and who were given the sutras by the Buddha himself to save until humanity was ready for them.9 Nagarjuna developed a philosophical system based on these sutras that he called the Middle Way. It was characterized by the refusal to take sides in debates on opposing philosophical views and can be summarized in the fourfold negation.10 For example, one point of debate is whether things have an essential existence or whether they are empty of an essential nature. The philosophy of the Middle Way says 1) it is not true to say phenomena have an essential existence, 2) it is not true that phenomena are empty, 3) it is not true that phenomena have both an essential nature and are empty, 4) it is not true that phenomena do not have an essential nature nor are empty. By denying the truth of all possible positions on this debate, the Middle Way emphasizes that the complete truth on this matter cannot be captured in words. Nagarjunas work supports the Mahayana emphasis on emptiness; phenomena and our ideas about them are empty of any ultimate reality. One implication of emptiness is that a person does not have to master any particular set of ideas or doctrines in order to express enlightenment. In other words, one does not have to be a monk and devote all of ones time to meditation and

23 the study of Buddhist doctrine. Instead, she can be a layperson and express enlightenment by helping others in daily life, including business. One important difference between the Mahayana and Theravada schools is in their understanding of the concept of the Bodhisattva. A Bodhisattva is an individual who foregoes enlightenment to help other beings. In the Theravada tradition, a Bodhisattva is considered a preliminary step to a Buddha, a point illustrated in the Jataka tales (tales of the Buddhas prior births), many of which contain stories of individuals who sacrifice themselves for the benefit of others. In the Mahayana tradition, however, the Bodhisattva represents the highest ideal. A Bodhisattva is a person who has attained the highest enlightenment, which is expressed in service to other beings. According to the Mahayana tradition, a person who pursues his own individual enlightenment becomes trapped in an inferior kind of enlightenment like a prison. As they attempt to escape suffering in the world of illusion, they tend to take this world more seriously; they take this illusion as real. Followers of the Mahayana, who understand emptiness, learn to pursue enlightenment within the world of illusion. By doing this, they can experience emptiness directly. The Mahayana school put less emphasis on spiritual practice aimed at individual enlightenment and more on the expression of compassion in daily life. The relationship between monks and laypeople changed and laypeople assumed a more important role. The differences between these two schools can be illustrated by examining one of the most important sutras of the Mahayana school, the Vimalakirti Nirdesa Sutra, which describes the layman Vimalakirti and his teachings.11 At the beginning of the sutra, Vimalakirti is ill and the Buddha and his disciples are discussing who should go to visit him. Vimalakirti has a deep

24 understanding of the dharma and the boundless compassion of a Bodhisattva. His illness reflects the suffering of the world which he perceives clearly through his supernatural wisdom. Shariputra, the wisest of the Buddhas monastic disciples, is chosen to go and visit Vimalakirti. In the sutra, Vimalakirti is wiser than anyone but the Buddha. He gives instruction to even the greatest of the Buddhas monastic disciples. As the sutra makes clear, even these disciples recognize that Vimalakirtis understanding is greater than their own. He shows that he has greater understanding than Shariputra and, when Shariputra reports this to the Buddha, the Buddha himself goes to visit Vimalakirti. Their subsequent discussion shows that Vimalakirti is his equal in understanding. We can contrast the concept of the ideal Buddhist layman in the Vimalakirti sutra with the discussion of Citta, the ideal layman in the Pali Canon. Here, the Buddha described Citta as one of two ideal lay disciples.12 Ten short suttas are devoted to Citta in the Kindred Sayings section of the Pali Canon.13 Citta, like Vimalakirti, was both a wealthy businessman and a person very advanced in the Buddhas teachings. He owned an entire village, Migapathaka, and a grove of mango trees, which he donated to the Buddhas order.14 However, he seemed to have a more deferential attitude than Vimalakirti. In most of the ten suttas dealing with Citta, he receives instruction from monks, in some cases, junior monks. This supports the claim that laymen were held in higher esteem in the Mahayana tradition than in the Pali Canon and the Theravada tradition based on it. Neither the Vimalakirti Nirdesa Sutra nor the suttas in the Pali Canon dealing with Citta explicitly discuss business practice. However, Vimalakirtis emphasis on the Mahayana doctrine of emptiness leads him to suggest that Buddhists can train effectively only when involved in

25 worldly activities with detached minds. Thus, he suggests, The disciple of the Buddha may follow the ways of avarice, yet he gives away all internal and external things without regard even for his life. . . .He may follow the ways of the rich, yet he is without acquisitiveness and often reflects on impermanence.15 Vimalakirti himself served as an example of an ideal Mahayana Buddhist layman. For example, Although he occasionally realized some profit in his worldly activities, he was not happy about these earnings. While walking in the street he never failed to convert others to the Dharma. When he entered a government office, he always protected others from injustice. . . When entering a house of prostitution he revealed the sin of sexual intercourse. When going to a tavern, he stuck to his determination to abstain from drinking. . .Amongst elders he was the most revered because he taught the exhalted Dharma.16 Vimalakirtis behavior sets an almost impossibly high standard; however, laypeople in the Mahayana tradition are encouraged to try to behave as he did. Once they have taken the seemingly impossible vow to save all living beings, they are encouraged to follow it during every worldly activity. Thus, he represents a model for us to try to copy, though we know that we will generally (but not always) fall short. Reading this description, I wonder if I would have liked spending time with Vimalakirti. A person who goes to a brothel and talks about the sin of sexual intercourse is something of a wet blanket. A person who goes to taverns but refuses to drink is something of a spoilsport. Their sanctimonious disapproval becomes obvious to others.

26 Is it possible to spend time among those engaged in drinking and sexual misbehavior without coming to feel sanctimonious and judgmental? Apparently, Vimalakirti was able to accomplish this work of the Bodhisattva. Vimalakirti said the Bodhisattva has the following characteristics, (The bodhisattva). . .is immune from defilements while appearing in the world of desire; is free from anger while appearing as if he were resentful; uses wisdom to control his mind while appearing to be stupid; appears as if he were greedy but gives away all his outer and inner possessions without the least regret for his own life; appears as if he broke the prohibitions while delighting in pure living and being apprehensive of commiting even a minor fault; appears as if he were filled with hatred while always abiding in compassionate patience; appears as if he were disturbed while always remaining in a state of serenity.17 This description represents the Mahayana ideal of an individual who participates in worldly activities while constantly dwelling on impermanence and selflessness. He may appear to others to be angry when he disciplines a subordinate or complains about a competitors actions for example, but this anger is merely part of playing the game involved in being in the world in order to save living beings. Because he dwells on emptiness and impermanence, he does not cling to his anger. People who attempt to behave like Bodhisattvas in their work will sometimes fail and become genuinely angry, greedy, and stupid. However, the Mahayana way of dealing with these faults is not to withdraw into seclusion and try to eliminate them, but to recognize their emptiness

27 and the emptiness of the things that evoke them. Over time, this makes it possible to approach the Bhodisattava ideal. Thus, Mahayana Buddhism reduced the distinction between monastic and lay life, making it easier for monasteries to engage in commercial activity and increasing the importance of the insights of laypeople who combined both practical and spiritual wisdom. Both of these trends continued as Mahayana Buddhism moved from India to China. Chinese Buddhism and Commerce Mahayana Buddhism came to China from India as a foreign religion and gradual ly incorporated Chinas existing Confucian and Taoist heritage. Specifically, Chinese Buddhism developed a greater emphasis on filial piety, which is central to Confucian ethics, and on harmony in hierarchical social relationships such as those between ruler and subject, husband and wife, and teacher and student. This Confucian influence can be seen in the translations of Indian suttas during the Later Han (25-220 AD) and Eastern Chin (317-420 AD) periods, but continued even after Buddhism was established and accepted in the Tang (618-907 AD) period. Filial piety was, of course, considered a virtue in Indian Buddhism but it became much more central in Chinese Buddhism. For the Chinese Buddhist laity, filial piety fit well with social expectations for behavior. However, monks were required to justify such seemingly unfilial behavior as leaving home and joining the sangha, cutting ties and obligations to parents.18 The need to accommodate to Confucianism also led to more emphasis on those parts of earlier Buddhist ethics that stressed gratitude and loyalty, especially to family and sovereign.19 The Confucian ideal of harmony was adopted by Chinese Buddhists and applied to all social

28 relationships. In this way, Chinese Buddhist ethics were subtly transformed in the process of assimilation and accommodation to indigenous Confucian ideas. Taoism also influenced Buddhism. Its emphasis on finding the Tao (the Way or the Path) that is mysterious and impossible to describe in words (the Way that can be named is not the true Way) reduced the importance of learning doctrinal formulations and studying sacred texts, which were two important tasks of monks in India. However, there was also continuity between Chinese and earlier Indian Buddhist social ethics. For example, laypeople were still strongly encouraged to give to the sangha. Also, many aspects of economic ethics for monks were the same as in Indian Buddhism. The transformations of Buddhism in China are most clearly evident in various commercial activities of Chinese temples. Activities such as grain milling, oil seed pressing, money lending, pawnshops, loans of grain to peasants, and rental of temple lands to farmers in exchange for some percentage of the crop had not existed in Indian Buddhism. Chinese temples also continued some of the commercial practices of Indian monasteries, such as giving loans that had to be repaid with interest, auction sales of clothing and fabrics, the use of lay servants within the monastery to carry out commercial transactions on behalf of the sangha, and allowing goods donated to the sangha that were not used by the monks to be sold or loaned to earn profits. In China, monks were eventually allowed to handle gold and silver and carry out commercial transactions.20 Money lending was one of the most profitable of all the commercial activities of the Chinese temples. Loans with interest were made to members of the upper classes, soldiers and others, and temple serfs attached to the monastery. Interest rates were so high on some of these loans that they would have to be considered usury. To control this usury which often lead to

29 hardships for peasants, the government during the Tang period put limits on interest rates at 4 to 5 percent per month (or up to 60% per year). As a result of such usury, as well as generous donations from wealthy patrons, some Buddhist monasteries in medieval China became extremely wealthy. The number of monasteries and monks, as well as their political power, increased considerably. Not surprisingly, Confucians and Taoists resented the increasing power of Buddhists. They participated in periodic persecutions of Buddhists that included seizure of monastery wealth, forcing monks to become laymen, and placing limits on the number of monasteries and temples. Major persecutions occurred in the years 446, 574, and 845.21 Three of the clearest examples of "capitalist" innovations in Buddhist temples in China were the use of inexhaustible treasuries and merit-cloisters and the buying and selling of monk ordination certificates. The concept of inexhaustible treasuries was borrowed from Indian Buddhism and began in China during the Liang Dynasty (502-557 AD). Inexhaustible treasures were permanent assets of monasteries such as land, money or goods that were loaned out in exchange for a steady (and inexhaustible) supply of income. In China, inexhaustible treasuries became major commercial operations for monasteries and the income from them was used to support monasteries and monks and various charitable activities. The profits were then partly consumed and partly reinvested into new assets to produce additional profits and a larger business. In other words, Chinese Buddhist monasteries of this period engaged in rudimentary capitalism. At least one scholar has concluded that the Chinese Buddhist sangha was responsible for the introduction of capitalism in China.22

30 However, Ornatowski argues that these practices were not pure capitalism in the modern sense because gifts that provided initial capital to the monasteries were given not with the idea of producing wealth in a capitalist sense but with the intention that such gifts would produce good karma for the donor. The term inexhaustible referred not only to an endless stream of income but to an endless cycle of giving and receiving in a return of compassion to others.23 A second pre-capitalist Buddhist practice was the merit-cloister in the Tang and Sung (960-1126 AD) periods. This practice shows that donations to the monasteries were not only made for religious reasons, but sometimes were used by the wealthy as a form of "tax shelter." Merit cloisters offered the rich a means to donate land to a monastery, and thus avoid payingtaxes on it, while still keeping effective control over it by appointing and dismissing the monks who acted as supervisors over the land. The third practice, the buying and selling of monk ordination certificates, was a commercial innovation that had a broad influence on Buddhism in China. The Chinese government started this practice in the fifth century as a way to raise money for the state, and it was later adopted by Buddhist temples themselves as a way to raise money. Eventually, these certificates came to be bought and sold, with their value tied to the perceived economic gain accruing to the holder in terms of tax exemptions and opportunities to engage in usury.24 Perhaps the most important innovation in Chinese Buddhism occurred in the Chan school, the precursor of Japanese Zen. This change related to monastic labor. Until the emergence of the Chan school, Chinese Buddhism continued the Indian practice of discouraging monks from doing manual labor, not only in commercial activities but also in agriculture or even gardening.

31 These innovations were initiated by the eighth-century Chan monk Pai-chang Huai-hai. Huai-hai justified monks doing manual labor despite the clear prohibitions against it in Indian Buddhism. He argued that if the intention behind the deed and not the deed itself was most important, then monk labor was justified as long as it was not for selfish gain. This justification and the practice of monk labor in many Chan monasteries led to the famous saying in the Chan schools, "a day of no work is a day of no eating." Thus, in Chinese Buddhism, monasteries became more self-sufficient. In some cases, monastic orders collaborated or competed with lay business. This led to an increase in the importance of financial and managerial skills on the part of monks. It also affected the relationship between monks and laypeople. Since both monks and laypeople could be involved in commercial activity and in Buddhist practice, the ideal teacher was one who understood both of these realms, even if that individual was a layperson. Expressing Buddhist insights through business activity became more important both for monks and laypeople. For example, a well-respected Chan teacher of the Tang dynasty, Layman Pang (740-808 AD), acquired great wealth, which he gathered onto a boat and sank in Lake Tung-ting, after which he and his family lived without any fixed dwelling.25 His actions give a vivid, though extreme illustration of the importance of avoiding attachment to wealth in Chan Buddhism, a problem that faced both laypeople and monks. His statements about Buddhism and worldly matters are similar to koans in the later Zen tradition. His writings, and those of others during this period, suggest that understanding the Buddhist conception of emptiness allows individuals to conduct their business with greater equanimity and effectiveness.

32 In summary, the religious training of laypeople and monks became more similar in China than it had been in India. Both groups attempted to achieve equanimity in commercial activity, which they regarded as religious training. When Chan Buddhism moved to Japan, the relationship between Buddhism and business became more intimate. Zen and Management in Japan Chan Buddhism first came to Japan in the 12th century but during the Edo period (16031867), a new understanding of the relationship between Buddhism and business began to develop.26 During this period, commerce developed rapidly, and some scholars consider this the beginning of Japanese capitalism. In some ways, the relationship between religion and commercial activity during this period parallels the relationship between Christianity and capitalism in Northern Europe following the Protestant Reformation. As Max Weber notes in The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism, Protestantism supported the idea that business can be a calling in the same way that monasticism can be a calling.27 According to Inoue, similar ideas for combining business and spiritual practice can also be found in the work of the 15th century roshi Rennyo, who said When engaged in business, do it as the work of the Buddha, and the monk Suzuki Shosan, who said, All commercial activity is the Buddhas activity. He assured merchants that, if they sincerely persevered in Buddhist training, they would be both spiritually and financially successful.28 Suzuki Shosan (1579-1655) actually had a more complex message than Inoue suggests. Surprisingly, little has been written in English about him, with two exceptions.29 This may be because, until recently, Western Buddhists have had little interest in a monk who was a vocal anti-

33 Christian and who discussed working for money as enlightenment. However, his writings remind me of Martin Luther, who lived and wrote about a century before Suzuki Shosan. Luther emphasized the concept of a calling30 and said that all men are called to labor at a particular kind of work. He said that God calls us to labor because he himself labors at common occupations. He is a tailor, who makes a coat for the deer that will last its entire life, and he is a butler who sets forth a daily feast for the sparrows. Therefore, we should work, as did Mary, the mother of Christ, and the Apostles. Luther pointed out that after Mary received the news that she was to be the mother of God, she did not exalt herself but continued her household chores. Lowly tasks are not inferior to important ones; the milkmaid and the person who hauls manure are as pleasing to God as the monks who sing psalms.31 Luther even saw work as a part of the life of Adam and Eve in Eden. If they had never fallen, they would still have worked at tilling the soil and preparing food.32 Luther felt money should be earned through work. He followed the Catholic theologian St. Thomas Aquinas in saying that lending money at interest is wrong, though it is acceptable to invest in a business as long as the investor shares the risks as well as the rewards of the business. Weber, in The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism, argues that Luther refined and developed the concept of a calling. His conception forms the basis of the view of work that underlies Western capitalism, even for those who are not Christians.33 He famously stated at the end of the book, The idea of duty in ones calling prowls about in our lives like the ghost of dead religious beliefs.34 As Luther interpreted Christianity in a way that supported capitalism in Europe, Suzuki Shosan interpreted Zen in a way that supported the development of capitalism in Japan. Some of

34 Shosans statements sound a great deal like those of Luther, and this may not be a coincidence. Shosan may have known about Luther. To understand how this is possible, it is necessary to briefly examine the sad early history of Christianity in Japan. Christianity was introduced to Japan in 1549 by the Jesuit Francis Xavier. By 1582, there were 80 Jesuit missionaries and perhaps 150,000 Christian converts in Japan.35 At that time, the Catholic church was fighting the rise of what it regarded as the Protestant heresy, of which Luther was one of the main proponents. Japanese converts to Catholicism, particularly those of the upper classes, may have been exposed to some of Luthers ideas in order to warn them against this heresy. Further, traders from Protestant England and Holland began to arrive in Japan in the early 1600' and they may have spread some Protestant ideas. Buddhist priests always opposed the Catholic missionaries and, in 1587, an edict was issued banning all missionaries. This edict marked the beginning of the persecution of Christians that culminated, in 1638, in the suppression of an armed uprising of Christians and the massacre of 30,000 people.36 Christianity was virtually eliminated as Japan closed its borders to foreigners for the next 200 years. Suzuki Shosanwas the son of a prominent samurai family. He would have witnessed the rise, persecution, and elimination of Christianity. In fact, he was a vocal anti-Christian, as illustrated by his essay Hakirishitan (Debunking the Christian Myth).37 However, he recognized the appeal of some Christian ideas and incorporated them into his own teaching. In equating work and enlightenment, he may have borrowed some ideas from Protestant Christianity. Shichihei, for example, claims that Suzuki Shosans ideas on Buddha-nature are very similar to

35 Christian ideas about the Trinity.38 However, there were also Zen sources, including Dogen Zenji, who, in the 13th century equated training and enlightenment. Social forces also helped shape Suzuki Shosans teaching. He was born a samurai at a time of social change in Japan. After years of civil war, the country was experiencing peace, which was a positive but dramatic change. While some social groups benefitted greatly, others, like the samurai, became less relevant. Shosans own frustrations as a samurai in a time of peace may have led him to the monastic life. According to Shichihei,39 during this period a large segment of the population had lost sight of their reason for living. Shosan asked a basic question: If all people have the Buddha nature, why did Japan have to suffer through over 200 years of civil war? His answer was that the Japanese did not understand the basic truths of Buddhism, including the truth that work equals enlightenment. He attempted to make this truth more plain in his own teaching. Though Suzuki Shosan was a monk himself, he did not urge others to become monks. When a samurai asked to be ordained, Shosan said, To renounce your position as a samurai shows a lack of vitality. As a religious practice, nothing surpasses public service. Become a monk and, to the contrary, youll create hell. . . .Although I too started off shaving my head in this way, having come this far, I now think that practicing while in public service is better after all.40 In a work called Banim Tokyu (The Virtues of All), Shosan discussed the proper attitude toward work for a number of occupations. For example, he told farmers that their work in the

36 fields was actually a way of purifying their own minds and bodies and removing the thicket of desires. Working hard while purifying the heart is the farmers road to Buddhahood. He said, Your birth as a farmer is Heavens gift to the world, your mission being to nurture the worlds people. Therefore, give yourself wholeheartedly to the way of Heaven through your farm labors. Celebrate the gods and Buddhas by raising the five grains, and save the people. Make a solemn vow to administer even to insects. Chant namu Amida butsu [usually translated as the Name of the Buddha who is to come] with each stroke of your hoe. Work earnestly, and with each stroke of your sickle your fields will be purified. The five grains will then become pure food that will work as medicine to extinguish the desires of those who eat it.41 Suzuki Shosans claims that all occupations are consistent with Buddhist practice seems to contradict the Buddha, who condemned certain occupations. All occupations are Buddhist practice; through work we are able to attain Buddhahood. There is no calling that is not Buddhist. . . . The all-encompassing Buddha-nature that manifests in us all works for the worlds good. Without artisans, such as the blacksmith, there would be no tools; without officials there would be no order in the world; without farmers there would be no food; without merchants we would suffer inconvenience. All the other occupations as well are for the good of the world. . . . All reveal the blessing of the Buddha. Those who are ignorant of the blessing of our Buddha-nature, who do not value themselves and their innate Buddha-nature and fall into evil ways of thinking and behaving, have lost their way.

37 Above all, you must believe in yourself. If you truly desire to become a Buddha, just believe in yourself. Believing in yourself is believing in the Buddha, for the Buddha is in you.42 Those familiar with the New Testament will see how similar these words are to the words of St. Paul (in Romans, Chapters 7 and 8 and elsewhere) that Christ is in you. Many Western Zen Buddhists also echo Shosans sentiments. Kennett Roshi, founder of Shasta Abbey, says, Dont despise any occupation. All is the work of a Buddha . . . In Shosans day, as in our own, many people looked down on merchants, especially those from the samurai class. However, Shosan expressed the opposite attitude, saying that commerce helps promote the most basic of freedoms, freedom from want. Merchants must not seek only profit but cultivate the honest desire to help others. In his own words, Throw yourself headlong into worldly activity. For the sake of the nation and its citizens, send the goods of your province to other provinces, and bring the products of other provinces into your own. Travel around the country to distant parts to bring people what they desire. Your activity is an ascetic exercise that will cleanse you of all impurities. Challenge your mind and body by crossing mountain ranges. Purify your heart by fording rivers. When your ship sets sail on the boundless sea, lose yourself in prayer to the Buddha. If you understand that this life is but a trip through an evanescent world, and if you cast aside all attachments and work hard, Heaven will protect you, the gods will bestow their favor, and your profits will be exceptional. You will become a person of wealth and virtue and

38 care nothing for riches. Finally, you will develop an unshakable faith; you will be engaged in meditation around the clock.43 In a sense, Shosans ideas are merely an extension of the samurai belief that swordsmanship can be practiced with the same spirit as Zen meditation. Shosan merely expanded this concept beyond swordsmanship to all work. He even went so far as to refuse to ordain new Zen priests in some cases. When he was asked about this, he said that even though he himself had become a monk, he wished that he had pursued his training as a layperson.44 According to Shichihei, Shosans ideas are reflected in the views of many Japanese executives about profit. He cites the example of an electronics manufacturer who claimed he never once worked to make a profit for his company, but only to provide people with electronics products as cheaply as tap water. This echos Shosans statement, Those who care nothing for the people but think only of profit incur the wrath of heaven, meet with misfortune, and are despised by all. If you do not love and respect everyone, you will fail at everything you do.45 It was not until Japan was forcibly opened by Admiral Perry in 1854 and the Meiji Restoration restored power to the emperor in 1868 that Christianity returned to Japan. The Meiji period saw increased government support of the Shinto religion, which was seen as a part of the Japanese national identity, and diminished support for Buddhism. Threatened by Christianity and lacking official support, some Buddhists responded by attempting to reform their religion. In the 1890s, these reforms acquired the name of the New Buddhism.46 The proponents of the New Buddhism, for example, Mizutani Jinkai and Nakanishi Ushio at the turn of the century, explicitly drew on Martin Luther and the Protestant Reformation in their efforts to transform Buddhism. They placed increased emphasis on training in lay life and supported Suzuki Shosans teachings

39 about the identity of work and enlightenment. The New Buddhism was reflected in the lives of prominent businessmen of the time. Individuals like Zenjiro Yasuda (1838-1921), founder of the Fuji Bank, used Buddhist principles in their businesses. Because of Yasudas belief that all are equal in the eyes of the Buddha, he implemented policies against discrimination based on social status, that was common in Japanese banking of the time.47 Modern Japanese Zen has developed a close relationship to business. Brian Victoria, in Zen at War, is quite critical of the involvement of Zen monasteries in corporate training programs in Japan, claiming that Zen is generally used to promote obedience in employees. His observations are disturbing because they show the ways Zen has been used to support militarism and hierarchy in Japanese business. According to Victoria, during World War II, Zen was used in the indoctrination of Japanese officers and soldiers. After the war, Japanese businessmen attempted to put it to use in rebuilding Japan's devastated industrial base. Dramatic social changes occurred in Japan after the war, including the introduction of democratic institutions based partly on the American model and an increased emphasis on individual rights. The postwar period also saw the growth of leftist forces and militant labor unions. Some in the business community felt Zen might help in restoring the traditional values of discipline, obedience, and loyalty to superiors.48 Some corporations created training programs for new employees that included stays in Zen monasteries. Victoria cites an article entitled Marching to the Company Tune, in a 1977 issue of Focus Japan, an English-language magazine published by the semi-governmental Japan External Trade Organization, describing the history of these programs:

40 [These programs] were developed in the late 1950s when companies realized that schools were no longer emphasizing the old virtues of obedience and conformity. Living and training together, sometimes for as long as a month, are designed to artificially recreate the old neglected virtues.49 Zen monasteries, according to Victoria, are excellent places for this training. In monasteries, monk and lay trainees rise at 3:30 A.M. to meditate, eat rice gruel for breakfast, and endure the winter cold with only tiny charcoal braziers for heat. They must also endure extended periods of sitting in the traditional cross-legged lotus posture. Those who move during meditation are sometimes struck by a long wooden stick wielded by a senior monk-monitor. After being struck, the mediator is required to place the palms of his hands together and bow as an expression of his gratitude for the blows. The social environment of a Zen monastery also promotes obedience and conformity. Before entering a monastery as a trainee, applicants are sometimes required to prostrate themselves in supplication before the entrance gate for hours. When asked why he wishes to enter the monastery, the monk is expected to reply with humility, indicating that his mind is like a blank sheet of paper, ready to receive wisdom from his superiors. Novice monks are at the bottom of the temple hierarchy. Senior monks precede them on any formal or semiformal occasion, including meals, and exercise some degree of authority over them. Senior monks have a number of privileges, including better living quarters and clothing, and the right to leave the monastery for short periods of time.

41 Victoria points to the parallels between Zen monastic life and military life and training. He quotes Soto Zen master Sasaki Kobo as saying that Zen monasteries and the military truly resemble each other closely, partly because both require communal life styles. Kobo continued: The first thing required in communal life is to discard the self. . . .In battle those who have been living together communally can work together very bravely at the front. . . . Today the state requires that we all follow a communal life style wherever we are, thus repaying the debt of gratitude we owe the state. The spirit of Zen monastic life does not belong to Zen priests alone but must be learned by all the people.50 Because Zen training emphasizes repaying the debt of gratitude owed to parents, the state, and others who have supported trainees, it appeals to both corporations and the military. This emphasis on gratitude can be found in The Quest for Self, by the Japanese executive Takeshi Iizuka, who stated that gratitude to parents and customers should be the basis of all business.51 Corporate Zen training is often conducted in tandem with temporary enlistment in the Japanese Self-Defense Forces. Senior monks in Zen monasteries act very much like drill sergeants, and novice monks are their recruits. Extending the analogy, Victoria asserts that the Roshis act as the generals or corporate heads, the ones who are ultimately responsible for directing the training programs for both monks and lay persons. One of the Zen phrases they emphasize is daishu ichinyo, which means that all members of the monastic community (daishu) should act as one (ichinyo). When it is time to do zazen, everyone sits. When it is time to eat, engage in long, silent hours of manual labor, or sleep, everyone acts together. To do otherwise is called katte na kobo or self-willed action.52

42 Victoria claims that to reinforce the principles of conformity and obedience, some roshis have given the traditional Buddhist teaching of the non-substantiality of the self a unique corporate twist. He cites the example of Ozeki Soen, abbot of Daisenin temple and one of the best-known of the Rinzai Zen priests conducting employee-training courses. In a collection of his sermons delivered during such training courses, he stated: Employing your vital life force, you should exert yourselves to the utmost, free of any conceptual thought. . . . This is what it means to be alive. That is to say, at every time and in every place, you should work selflessly.53 Though Victoria cites this as an example of a cynical corporate twist on a Zen principle, it is not obvious to me that this is true. The principle of selfless work, while it can be made to serve corporate interests, is not a twist or distortion of Buddhist teaching. Victoria cites another example of Zen's corporate twist in the writings of Sakai Tokugen, another Zen master involved with employee training programs and a former professor of Buddhist Studies at Komazawa University. In the May 1974 issue of Daihorin, Tokugen said: Sincerity [in carrying out orders] means having feelings and actions of absolute service, giving one's all [to the task at hand]. In doing this there can be no thought of personal loss or gain. . . . By carrying out our [assigned] tasks, we become part of the life of the entire universe; we realize our original True Self. . . . This is the most noble thing human beings can do.54 For Tokugen, selfless devotion to work is not a preparation for enlightenment but enlightenment itself. This makes him a popular leader of Zen-based training programs and,

43 according to Victoria, he has been coopted by corporate interests. However, the statement quoted above is entirely consistent with the writings of Suzuki Shosan. I believe Victoria oversimplifies and overstates the connections between Zen, militarism, and corporate interests but there is a core of truth in the following statement. It should be clear by now that, at its most basic, the same spirit of selfrenunciation characterizes both Tokugen's exhortations to be a good worker and those of D. T. Suzuki, Yamazaki Ekiju, Harada Sogaku, and others to be a good soldier. The only difference between them is the object of loyalty and devotion. In pre modern Japan, absolute loyalty was owed to one's feudal lord. From the Meiji period onward the focus shifted to the central government and its policies as embodied in the person of the emperor. In postwar Japan the focus shifted once again, this time to the corporation and its interests-which are of course very closely connected in Japan with those of the state.55 Victoria suggests that the practice of Zazen is also very attractive to corporations in Japan. Zazen helps to cultivate deep concentration or samadhi which is used to help trainees gain deeper insight into the nature of the self. However, since samadhi facilitates absorption into the present moment, it can be applied to any work, from wielding a samurai sword to performing corporate duties. Katsuhira Sotetsu, former head of the Nanzenji branch of the Rinzai Zen sect was a prominent critic of corporate Zen in Japan and appears to echo Victorias sentiments. In his book Enlightenment of a Pickle-Pressing Stone (Takuan Ishi no Satori) he wrote:

44 Of late there has been a Zen boom, with various companies coming to Zen temples saying they wish to educate their new employees. But it is clear what kind of education they are seeking. They want to educate their employees to do just as they are told. They claim that Zen is good at this. However, their claim is a bunch of rubbish! Zen is not as paltry as all that. It is not so small-minded as to restrict a person to such a limited framework. This said, the responsibility for having sanctioned such a Zen boom lies with the Zen temples themselves.56 During the 1980s, when Japanese industry and the Japanese economy were the envy of the world, Zen was given some of the credit. For the past decade, however, Japans economy has been stagnant and the country has experienced four recessions. It is fair to ask whether Zen had any influence on people during the downturn. It may foster employees loyalty to existing companies and reduce the willingness of business people to support structural economic reforms that will drive some of these companies to bankruptcy. Some Japanese executives see Zen as a means for helping the country to recover economically. In 1992, the Zen Studies Institute at Hanazono University collaborated with the Rinzai sect to produce a video tape in both Japanese and English entitled Introduction to Zazen. The promotional material accompanying this tape began with the following headline: Zazen, the Generative Power for Overcoming Economic Recession. It went on to add: Zen, the wisdom fostered by Japanese culture, can be said to be the key to overcoming the current economic slump, the worst since the end of the war. . . . Zazen is now the focus of businessmens attention.57

45 Victoria states that it is difficult to determine the exact number of participants in Zen-influenced corporate training programs in Japan today. However, when he was in training at Soto Zen-affiliated Jokuin temple in the mid-1970s, he helped support three to four such programs per month, each one of which typically lasted three to four days and involved ten to fifty individuals. In 1996, Saito Meido, a priest at the Rinzai temple of Myoshinji, told him that a total of five hundred and fifty company employees had participated in its corporate-training programs during the first nine months of 1996. I agree that Zen training has been abused in Japan (as has Christianity in the West). However, I believe Victoria may overstate the extent to which Zen training reinforces obedience to superiors. It is commonly believed that Japan is a conformist society and that Japanese executives value loyalty and obedience more than Western managers. However, I once surveyed groups of Japanese and American business executives and found that American executives were more likely than their Japanese counterparts to report that decisions in their organizations reflected the desires of the boss.58 In our paper, my co-authors and I speculated that Japanese businesspeople were very loyal to their companies but not necessarily to any one executive. I wonder whether we Westerners misunderstand the Japanese conception of obedience. It is commonly thought that conformity to authority is a central value in all Confucian cultures and that Confucius himself taught absolute obedience to authority. However, my own reading of the Analects suggests that Confucius was focusing on a different kind of obedience. In Book 11, Analects 23, he states, What I call a great minister is one who will only serve his prince while he can do so without infringement of the Way, and as soon as this is impossible, resigns.59

46 It would seem that Confucius advocates loyalty and obedience to the Way rather than to the leader. The same is true of Buddhism. To the extent the Japanese executives are influenced by these traditions, they should be expected not to support a leader whose actions do not conform to the Way. In summary, Buddhism was influenced by Japanese nationalism and sometimes coopted by it. There are some indications that it may support conformity in Japanese business, but I am not convinced this is a serious problem. The Short History of Buddhist Management in America Buddhism has a long history in America. Chinese immigrants brought it to the West Coast in the late 1840s during the gold rush. By the 1870s, several temples had been established on the West Coast, including eight in San Francisco.60 The Buddhist Church of America, in the Shin Buddhist tradition, was founded in 1899 and continues to operate today. These lifelong Buddhists have attempted to apply their religion to their work as sincerely as those, like myself, who are converts to the religion. Over the last few decades, the number of immigrant Buddhists in the U.S. has grown very rapidly.61 The 1965 Immigration and Nationality Act lead to a large increase in the number of immigrants from Theravada countries in Southeast Asia. Prebish estimates that by 1990, there were half-a-million Theravada Buddhists in the United States and the number has increased since. These considerations suggest that lifelong Buddhists may have an increasing impact on the way Buddhism interacts with management in America. In this section, I will draw on work on Buddhism and management by American Buddhists who are converts to the religion, immigrant Buddhists, and lifelong Buddhists in Japan because

47 these people have all contributed to our understanding of this topic. I have found approximately 20 books on the topic of Buddhism and business. The books Skillful Means and Mastering Successful Work, by Tarthang Tulku, Enlightened Management by Donna Whitten and Akong Tulku, Putting Buddhism to Work by S. Inoue, and The Quest for Self by T. Iizuka were the only Buddhist management books written by those born into the religion. The majority of the books were written by Western converts. The earliest books about Buddhism and management in English were written in the 1970s. Of course, Buddhists, beginning with the Buddha himself, have always given advice to householders, monarchs, and others involved in administration. However, books by Americans who have worked in management and undergone formal Buddhist training, and who have attempted to apply Buddhist insights to improving business practice, could only have been written in the last several decades. The discipline of management itself is only slightly more than 100 years old. Wharton, the first business school, was established in the 1880s, when Frederick Taylors scientific management movement was beginning. Early works like The Functions of the Executive62 and the work of Peter Drucker in the 1950s helped establish the discipline of management as it is practiced and taught in business schools today. In the early days of modern management, at the turn of the century, it would not have occurred to anyone in America that Buddhism and management might be related, not only because the discipline of management was in its infancy, but because very few Americans knew anything about Buddhism. However, this situation changed in the 1950s and 1960s. Business education in the United States began to expand, as did interest in Buddhism. Buddhist training in America increased in

48 the 1960s and 1970s mostly through the efforts of a number of individuals trained in Japanese Zen Buddhism, including Philip Kapleau, Shunryu Suzuki, and Jiyu Kennett. For most Americans interested in training at that time, Zen was the most visible form of Buddhism available. Some who began training at that time also entered the business world, where they attempted to integrate their work with their spiritual practice. During the 1960s and 1970s Buddhism was associated with the counterculture in America. More recently, however, individuals have attempted to apply Buddhist teaching to establishment institutions like businesses. A number of the books written in the 1970s and 1980s dealt with Buddhism and work, including A Way of Working (1979),63 Skillful Means (1978),64 Honest Business (1981),65 and Chop Wood, Carry Water (1984).66 However, they did not devote much time to administrative or managerial work, possibly because there were few American Buddhists in managerial positions in the 70s and 80s. These books focused on manual labor and craft work. In fact, the phrase chop wood, carry water itself reflects this focus on, and preference for, productive manual labor over administrative work. Many of those who began Zen training in the 1970s found it easier to do manual work mindfully than intellectual or administrative work. However, in the 1990s, more Buddhists have acquired managerial responsibilities and are interested in learning how to manage others mindfully. By the early 1990s, some individuals who had spent a significant portion of their professional lives simultaneously managing businesses and undergoing formal Buddhist training began to publish books on Buddhism and management. At the same time, both management

49 consultants and Buddhist teachers began to publish on this topic. The final section of this chapter will discuss these books and their authors. Contemporary American Buddhism and Business Practice Much of American business today is global in scope, and the same can be said of American Buddhism. Ideas and practices from many countries influence American Buddhists and their thinking on the relationship between business and their spiritual practice. Most of the recent works on Buddhism, business, and economics have been written by individuals in the worlds two largest economies, the U.S. and Japan. However, Canadians, Europeans, Southeast Asians, and Tibetans have also explored this topic. In this section, I will discuss all the books I have been able to find on Buddhism and commerce published in English. The books range from first-person accounts of Buddhist executives who have attempted to apply the Dharma to entrepreneurial activity and business,67 to books by consultants and executives that are less autobiographical and more prescriptive.68 These books express the best and worst thinking on contemporary Buddhist management and some of them have had a positive influence on the practice of American businesspeople. I have attempted to be selective in my review and focus only on those books that deal directly with the interaction between commercial activity and Buddhist practice. I have excluded a number of business books with titles like Success @ Life: A Zentrepreneurs Guide by Ron Rubin and Stuart Gold.69 Many books that include the terms Buddhism or Zen in their titles are not actually informed by Buddhism but are merely enlivened by a few Buddhist phrases. I have also excluded books like Winning through Enlightenment by Smothermon,70 which discusses Zen and leadership from an EST perspective and Zen Lessons in the Art of Leadership by Thomas

50 Cleary.71 Dr. Cleary is a scholar of East Asian languages and has translated and edited numerous texts on Buddhism and Taoism. His book is a set of translations of Chan teachings from the Song dynasty in China. The statements are helpful but the author provides very little explanation of their application to leadership and management at the present time. Finally, I have excluded two classic texts that have been popular in management for the last decade: the Book of Five Rings,72 by the 17th century Japanese samurai Miyamoto Musashi, and the Art of War73 by Chinese general Sun Tzu. Sun Tzu was not a Buddhist, but Miyamoto Musashi was clearly influenced by Zen. However, both these books deal primarily with military strategy and martial arts rather than business. These books vary a great deal in quality. I will briefly discuss the authors and their views on Buddhism as it relates to capitalism. Since I will draw on some of these books in later chapters, my brief reviews will help orient the reader to the perspectives of those currently writing on the topic. The reader will see that I am critical of some of these books, though I hope I am not dismissive. My real aim is to draw attention to those books that are informed, thoughtful, and likely to be helpful to others who want to read more on this subject. The Dalai Lama The book, The Art of Happiness at Work74, is a series of interviews with the Dalai Lama on various topics related to the workplace. The Dalai Lama is not a business executive but has extensive experience managing a large and dispersed religious order. He gives common sense advice on dissatisfaction at work, ethical issues involved in making money, careers and vocations, and right livelihood. I was pleased to see that he devoted a chapter to the topic of work and identity, which I will address later in the book.

51 Let Davidson A brief biographical statement at the beginning of Davidsons book Wisdom at Work75 states that its author, a corporate consultant and leadership coach, has been a student of the Perennial Philosophy for 30 years. The book discusses the authors experiences in translating this philosophy into principles and techniques for his consulting practice. His views on the relationship between ancient wisdom and such business topics as leadership, teamwork, technology management, the internet, and networking were not helpful to me. The book dealt with important topics, but Davidsons analysis of these topics contains too many truisms and his points are often buried is sentences like the following, The corporate upheaval is the opening for the geyser of spirit to erupt. The deep irritants are like the sand in the oyster that generates the pearl of great wisdom. . .76 Bernard Glassman Bernard Glassman is perhaps the best-known of the Zen teachers included in this section. He was an engineer at McDonnell-Douglas and worked on a Mars mission at the same time he studied Zen. Throughout his book, Instructions to the Cook,77 he uses the metaphor of ingredients in a meal for stakeholders of an organization. He often mentions vision and leadership, including self-managed teams,78 non-rejection,79 money,80 time management,81 mindful work and right livelihood.82 I will draw on his ideas in later chapters of my book. Glassman is the founder of the Greystone Mandala, a network of businesses and not-forprofit organizations based in New York. His ideas and experiences of Zen and entrepreneurship are interesting and sometimes inspiring. For an alternative view of some of the same events Glassman describes, see Ambivalent Zen by Lawrence Shainberg.83

52 Takeshi Iizuka Takeshi Iizuka is an accountant and chairman of the National Federation of Public Accountants in Japan. His book The Quest for Self: Zen in Business and Life84 represents a fascinating blend of Buddhism and business practice, as does Putting Buddhism to Work by Inoue.85 Iizukas book, however, deals more with the effects of Zen training on the individual and speculates less on how Buddhism should effect society. His discussions of auditing in the books appendices are like none I have ever read. At one point, he states, I really pray that American... CPAs may realize the necessity of Zen training,86 and argues that those performing audits must maintain the state of mind characteristic of Zen meditation, the Objectless Concentration of Mind taught by the Buddha must be treated as the absolute foundation of the worlds current auditing practices.87 I will draw on this book in the section of Chapter 5 dealing with auditing. Shinichi Inoue Mr. Inoue has spent his professional life as a banker. He began his career in the Bank of Japan and eventually became president of Miyazaki Bank. His book, Putting Buddhism to Work,88 deals with a broad range of business and public policy questions from a Zen perspective. His discussion and examples reveal a great deal about the differences between American and Japanese approaches to the integration of Buddhism and management, as does the book The Quest for Self by Takeshi Iizuka.89 Inoue stresses creativity a bit less than American writers on the topic and emphasizes cooperation and gratitude a bit more. Inoue applies Zen Buddhism to economics and management in order to develop what he calls a Buddhist economics, building on the influential work of E.F. Schumacher, in his books, Small is Beautiful90 and A Guide to the Perplexed.91 He offers Buddhist critiques of Marxist and

53 laissez-faire perspectives and offers the German model (which involves more cooperation between business, government, and unions than the American model) as a Beacon for Buddhist economists. Though I disagree with him, I found the book thought-provoking. Les Kaye Les Kaye, author of Zen at Work,92 worked for over thirty years as an engineer and manager for IBM while training in Zen. The book describes the authors experiences applying insights gleaned as a Zen student and teacher to his work. The book is written in a straightforward style and contains little business or Buddhist jargon. Kaye discusses such topics as the role of mindfulness in communication, the ways Buddhist meditation can foster creativity, and reconciling self-expression with organizational responsibilities. The book was not as sharply focused as it might have been and the author tends to ramble a bit. I could have used a bit better summary of the books main points in the final chapter. Geri Larkin Ms. Larkins book, Building a Business the Buddhist Way,93 gives advice about the most important aspects of starting and running a business. In an earlier book, Stumbling Toward Enlightenment,94 she relates that she suffered various personal and emotional difficulties because of her high-pressure job as a management consultant for the accounting firm Deloitte & Touche. These difficulties led her to Zen, in which she trained for three years before receiving her ordination to teach. Her book covers standard material on developing a business plan, marketing, and financial considerations for new businesses but this material is not integrated well with the material on Buddhism, which occurs mainly in the first chapter.

54 I was troubled by the glib style of the book and by the lack of depth. I was dismayed, for example, to see an entire page taken up by the quote, Do or not do. There is no try. by Yoda from the movie Star Wars. I did not find it useful. Albert Low The 1976 book Zen and Creative Management95 was the earliest book I found on the specific topic of Buddhism and management. The author, Albert Low, was employed in middle management in an Ontario, Canada natural gas utility. He practiced Zen under the direction of Roshi Philip Kapleau beginning in 1967. Apart from this, the book provides very little direct information on Lows background. In a way, this represents an admirable restraint. However, it makes it more difficult to ascertain how Lows own unique business experience influenced his interpretation of Buddhism. The book contains a great deal of material on management theories common at the time, and a better set of references and bibliography than most later books on the topic. The book has some useful discussions of the implications of Zen for management topics such as leadership, product management, salary administration, conflict, organizational structure and change, employee evaluation and training. I will discuss some of his ideas on these topics in later chapters. Franz Metcalf & B. J. Gallagher-Hateley Franz Metcalf received a masters degree from the Berkeley Graduate Theological Union and a Ph.D. from the University of Chicago. His dissertation was entitled Why do Americans Practice Zen Buddhism? He teaches religion at California State University in Los Angeles and is book review editor of the online Journal of Global Buddhism. B. J. Gallagher-Hateley is a management consultant.

55 The book, What Would Buddha Do at Work?96 contains dozens of short chapters dealing with various problems at work under three main headings: becoming an enlightened worker, creating enlightened work relationships, and creating an enlightened workplace. Each of these begins with a quote from a Zen, Tibetan, or Theravada Buddhist source. The book contains a few too many cliches and suggests that the Buddha would have agreed with statements like, customers, love em or lose em, and people who feel good about themselves produce good results. P. A. Payutto P. A. Payutto, who became a novice at the age of 13, has been a monk in the Theravada Buddhist tradition in Thailand since 1952. He is one of Thailands foremost Buddhist scholars, having served as the Deputy Secretary-General of the Buddhist University, and he won the 1994 UNESCO Prize for peace education. His writings are extensive, including a 1,000-page book entitled Buddhadhamma97 and some of his work has been translated into English. His manuscript, Buddhist Economics: A Middle Way for the Marketplace,98 available through his web site, deals with management as well as economics and social policy. Payutto raises a number of criticisms of capitalism in practice, though he does not think it is impossible to be a sincere Buddhist in a capitalist society. He draws a fundamental distinction between good and bad desires and claims that some industries and some economic systems appeal to bad rather than good desires. I believe this distinction is too simplistic but it is clearly stated and well supported with numerous references to the Pali Canon, with which Payutto is intimately familiar. I found it quite useful and will be quoting from it in later chapters.

56 Radha Denise Rose, now known as the reverend Radha, received an MA from Cambridge and worked as a management consultant for 15 years. He has trained in both the Zen and Theravada traditions and now lives in Germany, where he trains managers and others in Zen. He draws on both the Zen and the Theravada traditions in giving advice on creativeness, planning, intuition, communication, and stress management in his very short book The Zen Way to Be an Effective Manager.99 Most of this advice is commonsensical, and I did not find it useful. For example, near the end of the book, he says that we must accept uncertainty as a natural part of management and life and come to understand it better by examining it mindfully.100 This is certainly true but not really a new insight. Lewis Richmond Lewis Richmond was formerly an executive vice president of Smith & Hawken, a provider of inventory management software. He studied in the Soto Zen tradition under Shunryu Suzuki Roshi. His book, Work as a Spiritual Practice,101 contains a good deal of autobiographical material describing Richmonds efforts at bringing Buddhist principles to business. He focuses on four main topics: conflict, stagnation, inspiration, and accomplishment. In the final section of the book, he discusses the question of whether Buddhists can be capitalists more directly than most of the other authors of Buddhist management books.

57 Michael Roach Roachs book The Diamond Cutter102 is the story of how he built the Diamond Division of Andin International using Buddhist principles while training for 20 years in Tibetan Buddhism. The title refers to a Buddhist sutra on emptiness from the Mahayana perspective. Roach gives a lot of details about the diamond business, which I rather liked, but I was not sure how the details illustrated the relationship between Buddhism and business. In Chapter 7, he provides his Buddhist perspective on a variety of common business problems and gives advice, some of it counterintuitive. For example, he suggests that if you need to raise money for your business, you should start by giving money away.103 Tarthang Tulka Tarthang Tulkas book, Mastering Successful Work,104 is one of two written by Tibetans, the other being Enlightened Management, by Donna Witten and Akong Tulka Rinpoche. It covers a number of topics related to work and management, including planning, decision-making, communication, and time management, as well as numerous exercises designed to increase skills at managing oneself and others effectively. Raven Walker Walkers book The Zen Manager,105 published in 2000, gives very little biographical information on him except to mention that he is a psychologist and one of the new voices of the American West. He provides some reasonable advice on management and work but seldom cites his Zen sources. Nonetheless, he feels confident enough to state, Zen, stripped from its Buddhist folderol, is an intuitive and empirical psychology of higher human performance. . .106 The writing

58 style was often glib and at times incomprehensible (see, for example, his discussion of accomplishment beginning on p. 27). What I could understand of this book I did not find useful. Claude Whitmyer Claude Whitmyer is director of the graduate business program at the California Institute of Integral Studies. His book, Mindfulness and Meaningful Work,107 is a collection of readings on Buddhism and work grouped under eight headings that are the steps in the Buddhist Eightfold Path. He includes some good essays on right livelihood by Robert Gilman, Ellen Langer, and Thich Nhat Hanh, but the quality is variable. Donna Witten and Ankong Tulka Rinpoche Donna Witten is a management consultant and Ankong Tulka Rinpoche is a Tibetan lama. Their 1999 book, Enlightened Management: Bringing Buddhist Principles to Work,108 is divided into two sections. In the first, the authors apply Tibetan Buddhism to topics including career management, conflict resolution, stress management, and balancing work and family life. In the second section, Ankong Tulku Rinpoche provides a number of Tibetan meditation exercises, many involving visualization, for promoting equanimity, loving-kindness, and insight. I found the book somewhat useful. Common Themes Several themes emerge from a review of these books, which I will discuss in later chapters. First, meditation and mindfulness are emphasized rather than the rituals or outward forms of the religion. In fact, Buddhism tends to be viewed less as a religion than as a set of selfhelp techniques. Buddhist management books reflect the conventions common to all of todays popular business books.

59 Second, American Buddhist management seems more egalitarian and participative than Japanese Buddhist management, though Japanese management thought is not as authoritarian as most Westerners believe. Further, American Buddhism appears to encourage creativity in the workplace more explicitly than Japanese Buddhism. Third, American Buddhists stress those aspects of Buddhism that are consistent with American pragmatism and entrepreneurial spirit. In fact, some Buddhists in America may have been too pragmatic and entrepreneurial in their attempts to build Buddhist businesses and nonprofit organizations. Few of these books devote enough attention to the moral issues involved in business. Michael Roach, for example, made a fortune selling diamonds, extremely expensive ornaments that cost the lives of miners in South Africa, Congo, and elsewhere. Geri Larkin was a consultant with Arthur Anderson, a company that was driven out of business because of ethical questions about the behavior of its auditors. Many businesses are subject to ethical questions, but few of these were addressed by the Buddhist authors who participated in them. Finally, American Buddhist management is more eclectic than the Buddhist management of Japan. Both of the Japanese books I read were based in Zen. Most of the books written by Americans are based in the Zen tradition, but some are based in Tibetan Buddhism and many draw from multiple traditions. Though this eclecticism can be stimulating, the danger of this eclectic and pragmatic spirit is that Buddhism may be diluted. Conclusion As Buddhism moved from India to China to Japan and, finally, to America, it changed dramatically in response to each of these countries cultures and economies. Business practices in each of these countries have influenced Buddhism as Buddhism has influenced business practice.

60 However, some of the business advice given by the Buddha over 2500 years ago still seems sensible today. This suggests that some things about Buddhism have remained consistent despite its adaptation to different cultures. Buddhist approaches to management and economics have been very different in different times and places. I have found the differences helpful in attempting to identify the real links between economic behavior and my own Buddhist practice. Because of these differences, we should be suspicious of the claim that there is a Buddhist management or a Buddhist economics that transcends cultures and historical periods. In the second section of the book, as I discuss specific topics in Buddhism, management, and economics, I will keep the lessons of this chapter in mind. I will not assume that there is a single Buddhist approach to these topics but will instead discuss different views and attempt to draw tentative conclusions. Some Better Questions I hope I have provided some answers to the questions posed in the introduction to this chapter; questions addressing differences between Buddhism as practiced in different national and historical contexts. In doing so, I believe I have come up with better questions; questions dealing with the essential aspects of Buddhism. What is the essence of Buddhism that has remained constant as Buddhism moved to the West? What is the essence of Buddhism that has not been corrupted by nationalism or capitalism? What is the core of truth expressed by all writers on Buddhism and business? How can I express this truth in my work? I believe the answers to these questions involve the concept of mindfulness, which will be covered in the next chapter.

61 1. Warder, A. 1970. Indian Buddhism. Delhi, India: Motilal Banarsidass, pp. 29-31. 2. Ibid., p.30 3. Walsh, M. 1989. Thus Have I Heard: Long Discourses of the Buddha p.99 4. Horner, I. 1989. Middle Length Sayings. Oxford: Pali Text Society, Vol. 2, pp. 256-258 5. Robinson, R. & Johnson, W. 1982. The Buddhist Religion: A Historical Introduction. Belmont, CA.: Wadsworth, pp. 65-67. 6. Conze, E. 1975. The Large Sutra on Perfect Wisdom. Berkeley, CA.: University of California Press. 7. Lopez, D. 1988. The Heart Sutra Explained. Albany, NY. SUNY Press. 8. Price, A. & Mou-Lam, W. 1969. The Diamond Sutra and the Sutra of Hui-Neng. Boulder, CO.: Shambhala Press. 9. See Bhattacharya, K., Johnston, E., & Kunst, A. 1986. The Dialectical Method of Nagarjuna. Delhi, India: Motilal Banarsidass; Jamspal, L., Chophel, N., & Santina, P. 1983. Nagarjunas Letter to King Gautampiputra. Delhi, India: Motilal Banarsidass; Komito, D.1987. Nagarjunas Seventy Stanzas: A Buddhist Psychology of Emptiness. Ithaca, N.Y.: Snow Lion Publications. 10. Kalupahana, D. 1986. Nagarjuna: The Philosophy of the Middle Way. Albany, NY:SUNY Press. 11. Luk, C. 1972. The Vimalakirti Nirdesa Sutra. Berkeley, CA.: Shambhala.; Thurman, R. 1986. The Holy Teaching of Vimalakirti. University Park, Pennsylvania: Pennsylvania State University Press. 12.Woodward, F. 1993. The Kindred Sayings. Oxford: Pali Text Society, p. 159) 13.Woodward, 1993. The Kindred Sayings. Oxford: Pali Text Society, pp. 190-212 14. Thera, N. & Hecker, H. 1997. Great Disciples of the Buddha. Boston, MA.: Wisdom books, p. 365. 15. Thurman, R. 1986. The Holy Teaching of Vimalakirti. University Park, Pennsylvania: Pennsylvania State University Press, pp. 64-65. 16. Luk, 1972, pp. 16-17 17.Luk, 1972, pp. 81-82

62 18. Ornatowski, G. 1996. Continuity and change in the economic ethics of Buddhism: Evidence from the history of Buddhism in India, China, and Japan. Journal of Buddhist Ethics, p. 9. 19. Nakamura, H. 1957. The influence of Confucian ethics on Chinese translations of Buddhist sutras. Sino-Indian Studies, 5, 156-170, pp. 163-168. 20. Chen, K. 1973. The Chinese Transformation of Buddhism. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, pp. 135-178; Ornatowski, G. 1996. Continuity and change in the economic ethics of Buddhism: Evidence from the history of Buddhism in India, China, and Japan. Journal of Buddhist Ethics, p. 10. 21. Ibid., p. 10. 22. Gernet, J 1995. Buddhism in Chinese Society: An Economic History from the Fifth to the Tenth Centuries. New York: Columbia University Press. 23. Ornatowski, 1996, p. 11. 24. Ibid., p. 12. 25. See Sasaki, R., Iriya, Y., & Fraser, D. 1971. A Man of Zen: The Recorded Sayings of Layman Pang. New York: Weatherhill. 26. Inoue, S. 1997. Putting Buddhism to Work: A New Approach to Management and Business. Tokyo: Kodansha International, pp. 81-85. 27. Weber, M. 1930/1992. The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism. London: Routledge. 28. Inoue, 1997, p. 82. 29. Braverman, A. 1994. Warrior of Zen: The Diamond-Hard Wisdom Mind of Suzuki Shosan. New York: Kodansha International.: Shichihei, Y. 1992. (L. Riggs & T. Manabu, Translators) The Spirit of Japanese Capitalism and Selected Essays. London: Madison Books. 30. Bainton, R. 1950. Here I Stand: A Life of Martin Luther. New York: Mentor Books.; Weber, ibid. 31. Bainton, ibid., p. 180-182. 32. Bainton, ibid., p. 184. 33. Weber, ibid., pp. 79-92. 34. Weber, ibid., p. 182. 35. Bunce, W. 1955. Religions in Japan. Rutland, VT.: Tuttle, pp. 148-149.

63 36. Bunce, ibid., p. 150. 37. See Elison, G. 1973. Deus Destroyed: The Image of Christianity in Early Modern Japan. Cambridge, MA.: Harvard University Press., 1973, pp. 375-389, for a translation of this piece. 38. Shichihei, Y. 1992. (L. Riggs & T. Manabu, Translators) The Spirit of Japanese Capitalism and Selected Essays. London: Madison Books, pp. 77-80. 39. Shichihe, ibid., p. 76. 40. Braverman, ibid., pp.33-37. 41. Shichihei, ibid., p. 80. 42. Shichihei, ibid., pp. 80-81. 43. Shichihei, ibid., pp. 84-85. 44. Braverman, ibid., pp. 37-38. 45. Shichihei, ibid., p. 87-88. 46. Thelle, N. 1987. Buddhism and Christianity in Japan. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, pp. 194-213. 47. Inoue, ibid., p. 84-5. 48. Victoria, B.1997, Zen at War. New York: Weatherhill, pp. 182-191 49. Focus Japan 1977 (June). Marching to the Company Tune, p. 36. 50. Sawaki, K. 1944.Zenrin no Seikatsu to Kiritsu Daihorin, pp. 23-25. 51. Iizuka, T. 1995. The Quest for Self: Zen in Business and Life. New York: NYU Press, pp. 1114, 126. 52.Victoria, ibid, p. 184 53.Quoted in Victoria, 1997, p. 185 54. Sakai, T. 1974. Onoda-san to Shoji no Monda1i (The Question of Life and Death and Mr. Onoda) Daihorin, 1974 (May), pp. 23-24. 55.Victoria, 1997, p. 185 56. Katsuhira, T. 1988. Ishi no Satori Tokyo: Yamate Shobo Shinsha, p. 100.

64 57. Victoria, 1997, p. 211 58. Cosier, R., Schwenk, C., and Dalton, D. 1992. Managerial decision making in Japan, the U.S., and Hong Kong. International Journal of Conflict Management, 3: 151-160. 59. Waley, A. 1938. The Analects of Confucius. New York: Vintage Books, p. 158. 60. Prebish, C. & Baumann, M. 2002. Westward Dharma: Buddhism Beyond Asia. Universty of California Press: Berkeley, CA, p. 107. 61. Prebish, C. 1999. Luminous Passage: The Practice and Study of Buddhism in America. Berkeley, CA.: University of California Press, p. 241. 62. Barnard, C. 1938. The Functions of the Executive. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press. 63. Dooling, D. (Ed.) 1979. A Way of Working. New York, NY.: Parabola Books. 64. Tulka, T. 1978. Skillful Means. : Dharma Publishing. 65. Phillips, M. & Raspberry, S. 1981. Honest Business. New York: Random House. 66. Fields, R., Taylor, P., Weyler, R., & Ingrasci, R. 1984. Chop Wood, Carry Water. New York: Tarcher/Putnam. 67. Glassman, B. & Fields, R. 1996. Instructions to the Cook: A Zen Masters Lessons in Living a Life that Matters. New York: Bell Tower; Iizuka, 1995. The Quest for Self: Zen in Business and Life; Kaye, L. 1996. Zen at Work. New York: Crown Publishing; Richmond, L. 1999. Work as a Spiritual Practice. New York: Broadway Books; Roach, M. 2000. The Diamond Cutter: The Buddha on Managing Your Business and Your Life. New York: Doubleday. 68. Davidson, L. 1998. Wisdom at Work. New York: Larson Publications; Inoue, ibid.; Larkin, G. 1999. Building a Business the Buddhist Way. Berkeley, CA.: Celesteal Arts Publications; Low, A. 1976. Zen and Creative Management. New York: Anchor Press; Metcalf, F. & GallagherHately, B. 2001. What Would Buddha Do at Work? Berkeley, CA.: Seastone; Tulka, T. 1978. Skillful Means. : Dharma Publishing; Witten, D. & Ankong Tulka Rinpoche. 1999. Enlightened Management: Bringing Buddhist Principles to Work. Berkeley, CA: Inner Traditions. 69. Rubin, R. & Gold, S. 2001. Success @ Life: A Zentrepreneurs Guide. New York: Newmarket Press. 70. Smothermon, R. 1980. Winning through Enlightenment. San Francisco, CA: Context Books. 71. Cleary, T. 1989. Zen Lessons: The Art of Leadership. Boston: Shambala. 72. Miyamoto Musashi 1974. Book of Five Rings. Woodstock, New York: Overlook Press.

65 73.Sun Tzu Art of War 74. Dalai Lama & Cutler, H. 2003. The Art of Happiness at Work. New York: Riverhead Books. 75. Davidson, ibid. 76. Davidson, ibid., p. 63 77. Glassman & Fields, ibid. 78. Ibid., p. 140. 79. Ibid., p. 118. 80. Ibid., p. 64, 80. 81. Ibid., p. 79. 82. Ibid., pp. 59, 67, 72. 83. Shainberg, L. 1995. Ambivalent Zen: One Mans Adventures on the Dharma Path. New York, NY: Vintage Books. 84. Iizuka, 1995. 85. Inoue, 1997. 86. Ibid., p. 141. 87. Ibid., p. 153. 88. Inoue, 1997. 89. Iizuka, 1995. 90. Schumacher, E. 1975. Small is Beautiful.New York: Harper & Row. 91. Schumacher, E. A Guide to the Perplexed. 92. Kaye, 1996. 93. Larkin, 1999. 94. Larkin, G. 1995. Stumbling Toward Enlightenment. 95. Low, A. 1976. Zen and Creative Management. New York: Anchor Press.

66 96. Metcalf, F. & Gallagher-Hately, B. 2001. What Would Buddha Do at Work? Berkeley, CA.: Seastone. 97. Payutto, P.1995. Buddhadhamma. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press. 98. Payutto, P. 1992. Buddhist Economics. Geocities.com/Athens/Academy/9280/econ.htm 99. Radha 1991. The Zen Way to Be an Effective Manager. London, England: Mercury Books. 100. Ibid., p. 107. 101. Richmond, L. 1999. Work as a Spiritual Practice. New York: Broadway Books. 102. Roach, M. 2000. The Diamond Cutter: The Buddha on Managing Your Business and Your Life. New York: Doubleday, pp. 86-87. 103. Ibid. Chapter 7 104. Tarthang Tulka 1994. Mastering Successful Work. Berkeley, CA.: Dharma Publications. 105. Walker, R. 2000. The Zen Manager. San Jose, CA.: Writers Club Press. 106. Ibid., p. iv. 107. Whitmyer, C. & Callenbach, E. 1994. Mindfulness and Meaningful Work: Explorations in Right Livelihood. Berkeley, CA: Parallax Press. 108. Witten, D. & Ankong Tulka Rinpoche. 1999. Enlightened Management: Bringing Buddhist Principles to Work. Berkeley, CA: Inner Traditions.

TABLE 1 Name Business Experience Managing Buddhist organizations Management consultant in Britain Business consultant & teacher Unclear/dont know Manager,Canadian public utility Experience in the diamond business Work in aerospace industry Executive in Japanese banking industry Software entrepreneur Management consultant Administrator of several Buddhist organizations Management consultant Buddhist Training/Buddhist Credentials Extensive training, teaching in Sanskrit at Tibetan Buddhist University in India Four years study as Zen monk in Sri Lanka Unclear/dont know Theravadan, details unknown Sanctioned to teach in Soto Zen tradition by Suzuki Roshi Completed 20 year training program in Tibetan practice Sanctioned to teach in Zen tradition by Yasutani Roshi Lifelong Zen Buddhist & promoter of Buddhism Sanctioned to teach in Soto Zen tradition by Suzuki Roshi Tibetan, details unknown Trained, recognized as a Tibetan Lama Buddhist training mostly in Zen tradition; self-described lifelong student of the Perennial Philosophy Abbot of Kannon Do Soto Zen monastery Lifelong Zen Buddhist; several periods of formal study in Zen monasteries

Tarthang Tulka Radha Claude Whitmeyer P. A. Payutto Albert Low Michael Roach Bernard Glassman Shinichi Inoue Lewis Richmond Donna Witten Akong Tulka Rinpoche Let Davidson

Les Kaye Takeshi Iizuka

IBM engineer & manager Ph.D., J.D., C.P.A.; Chair of the National Federation of Public Accountants

Name Geri Larkin Franz Metcalf B. J. GallagherHateley Raven Walker

Business Experience Management consultant Professor of Religion Management consultant Writer

Buddhist Training/Buddhist Credentials 3 years Zen Buddhist training, details unknown Advanced degree in Religious Studies with focus on Zen Buddhism Unclear/dont know Mostly Zen, details unknown

69 APPENDIX 2: DID THE BUDDHA REALLY EXIST? I have been talking about the Buddha as though he was a real person. I should probably explain why, and I can do so by contrasting Buddhism with Christianity. For Christians, the question of whether Jesus actually lived is of central importance. The Christian faith is based on the belief that Jesus was born, died, and rose again. If this is not true, it undermines the foundations of the Christian faith. It is, of course, difficult to find archaeological evidence for the existence of Jesus because he was a poor and relatively obscure man during his 3-year ministry and there are usually few historical records on common people. In Buddhism, the situation is quite different. The Buddha was not a god and he did not rise from the dead. He gave no commandments but merely pointed the way to enlightenment which people had to follow on their own. When he was dying, the Buddha told his followers to be lamps unto yourselves. Therefore, if the Buddha was not a real, historical figure, it doesnt matter a great deal; Buddhist teachings can be evaluated on their own merits, regardless of who first expressed them. To my knowledge, there is no direct historical evidence for the existence of the Buddha. However, I believe there is indirect evidence in the Pali Canon. The Pali Canon contains the oldest Buddhist writings and it is the scripture of the Theravada school of Buddhism. The word Theravada is often translated as the doctrine of the Elders, and the Theravada Buddhists believe the Pali Canon contains the original teachings delivered by the Buddha. It is a collection of rules, stories, and sermons written in Pali, the language probably spoken by the Buddha. During his 50-year ministry, tens of thousands of people joined his order and devoted their time to

70 meditation, teaching, and reciting the words of the Buddha. Several hundred years after his death, these words were first written down. As might be expected, the Buddha gave a great many more sermons during his 50-year ministry than did Jesus in his 3-year ministry. The Pali Canon is over 5 times as long as the entire Christian Bible, of which Christs words comprise only a small part. I believe I see a thematic continuity in the Pali Canon suggesting that there was a single intelligence behind it. For convenience, I refer to this intelligence as the Buddha. I believe there was an individual who is the source of much (though not all) of the Pali Canon. The Pali Canon does not read like it was written by a committee; and those of you who have worked in committees will understand what I mean. However, the teachings must be evaluated on their own merits, regardless of their origins. There are reasons to believe that the Pali Canon is the collection of writings that most closely represents what the historical Buddha himself taught. If I want to describe the basics of Buddhism, or mere Buddhism (as C.S. Lewis once famously described mere Christianity) it seems that I should focus on the Pali Canon because Buddhists from all traditions accept it, if not as the purest expression of Buddhism, at least as the earliest.

71 CHAPTER 3: MINDFULNESS AND IDENTITY AT WORK Introduction In the last chapter, I discussed basic Buddhism, including the practice of mindfulness. In this chapter, I will be more specific about the Buddhist teachings underlying mindfulness. Mindfulness is the key to understanding how Buddhism relates to business and management; Buddhists attempt to work and conduct their business mindfully. But what does this mean exactly? How do we use bare attention and clear comprehension to decide how we should work and what values and goals we should pursue? While working, Buddhists encourage productive desires and discourage destructive ones by avoiding craving and clinging. In business, it is especially important to avoid clinging to our work roles and identities as consumers. In this chapter, I will cover the Buddhist teachings that provide the basis for the practice of mindfulness, starting with the distinction between good and bad desire. To fully explain this distinction, I have to cover the Buddhist teachings on dependent origination (or cause and effect). Dependent origination is a difficult concept, but it explains how bad desire, or craving, progresses through clinging, conception, and birth, and finally death. Mindfulness is a way to stop this progression, and by the end of the chapter, I will have provided the basic concepts I need to really explain what mindfulness means. Some good questions In this chapter, as in the last, I will address a number of good questions, including, What distinguishes a good from a bad desire? How do we think differently about things we crave than about things we cling to? What is real mindfulness?

72 Types of Desire Some people think that Buddhism condemns all desire. This is not true. Buddhists suggest that there are good and bad kinds of desire. In Pali, bad desire is called tanha and good desire is called chanda. In discussing the two types of desire, Japanese Buddhist business executive Shinichi Inoue says, in Putting Buddhism to Work, From the Buddhist point of view, consumption is based on human desire, or greed. . . Buddhism can be viewed as a tradition that takes a moderate stance toward desire. In other words, certain basic desires are accepted because they affirm life. What Buddhism warns against is self-centered desires that do not affirm life but work against it.1 Lewis Richmond, an American Buddhist entrepreneur who wrote Work as a Spiritual Practice, says that desire is at the root of most human suffering and injustice, and that we are all prisoners of desire. Commerce is simply the collective expression of these individual wants, including desires for bread, safety, long life, and Rolex watches. However, the desire for bread and the desire for Rolex watches are not the same kind of desire.2 Richmond feels that American capitalism has a major fault: it does not differentiate between these kinds of desire. He feels our society, American consumer society, is based on the idea that ANY human desire is worth fulfilling. He claims that the advertising industry exists primarily to stimulate these desires and, in some cases, to invent [desires] out of whole cloth.3 Richmond says, It has been left to spiritual leaders, such as the Buddha, to challenge our fundamental assumptions about human desire. Though known to posterity as a

73 great spiritual teacher, the Buddha was, until the age of 29, the ancient equivalent of a billionaire, a prince of wealth and privilege. His spiritual awakening began when he realized that all his wealth and power could not provide him with true happiness. . . .The Buddhas core message is not fixed. Unlike Thomas Hobbes, Adam Smith, and other Western thinkers who accepted human nature as given and whose philosophies form the basis of modern commerce, the Buddha felt that our human nature is capable of transformation or, to be more precise, selftransformation.4 Thai Buddhist scholar P. Payutto5 elaborates on the distinction between the different kinds of desire discussed by Richmond. Because human beings are born in ignorance, they do not really know how to conduct their lives, so they are tempted to blindly follow their desires and craving. This blind craving is called tanha (craving, ambition, restlessness, or thirst). Payutto uses the example of food to show the way tanha works. The biological purpose of eating is to nourish the body, to provide it with strength and well-being. However, tanha arises in the form of desire for delicious tastes. If we are overwhelmed by tanha when we eat, rather than eating for the purpose of nourishing the body, we eat for the pleasant taste. Because this kind of eating is motivated by tanha, it leads to suffering. Tanha also leads to the social costs associated with over consumption, such as depletion of natural resources and increased health care costs. Because tanha is based on ignorance, it is misguided and can never bring satisfaction. Payutto illustrates this point with a story that appears in a collection in the Pali Canon called the Jataka Tales. This is the 258th of 550 of these tales, which describe previous lives of the Buddha.6

74 Many years ago, there lived a king called Mandhatu. He lived a very long life and had everything that anyone could want. He was a prince for 84,000 years, then the heir apparent for 84,000 years, and then emperor for 84,000 years. At the end of this time, he began to grow bored. His wealth was no longer enough to satisfy him. His servants saw that something was wrong and asked what it was. He replied that his wealth and pleasure were trifling and asked if there was anywhere superior to his kingdom. His servants replied that only heaven was better. Fortunately, the king had the Cakkaratana, a magic wheel that could transport him anywhere, so he used it to take him to the Heaven of the Four Great Kings. The Four Great Kings came out to welcome him in person, and on learning of his desire, invited him to take over heaven. King Mandhatu ruled over the Heaven of the Four Great Kings for a long time, until he eventually began to feel bored again. Even the delights of heaven were no longer enough to satisfy him. He had heard that the Tavatimsa Heaven was superior even to the Heaven of the Four Great Kings so he used his magic wheel and ascended to the Tavatimsa Heaven, where he was greeted by the god Sakka, who gave him half of his kingdom. King Mandhatu ruled over the Tavatimsa Heaven with Lord Sakka for another very long time, until the Lord came to the end of the merit that had sustained him in heaven, and was replaced by a new Sakka; who ruled until he too reached the end of his life-span (which, according to my calculations from the information in the Jataka story, lasted 216 trillion years of heavenly time). In all, thirty-six Lord Sakkas came and went, while King Mandhatu continued enjoying the pleasures of this heaven.

75 King Mandhatu again began to feel dissatisfied. Instead of ruling only half of heaven, he wanted to rule all of it. So he plotted to kill Sakka. But humans cannot kill heavenly beings, and so his wish went unfulfilled. King Mandhatu's inability to satisfy this craving destroyed his peace of mind and caused him to fall from the Tavatimsa Heaven. He landed back on earth, in his own royal park. When the workers in the park saw that a great king had arrived, some set off to inform the palace. By now the king was on the verge of death. He told them about the great power and wealth he had possessed on earth and in heaven, but then finally admitted that his desires remained unfulfilled. Finally, he warned everyone about the insatiable quality of craving or tanha. The story of King Mandhatu illustrates the Buddhist view that desire is endless. Payutto feels that economics rests on the unquestioned assumption that endless desire is a good thing.7 Tanha, based in ignorance, leads to misguided effort, which sometimes, by accident, leads to positive outcomes. However, in most cases the things obtained through tanha reduce the quality of life in the long run. According to Payutto, tanha is also at the root of many destructive conflicts. As they struggle against each other and the world around them to fulfill their selfish desires, human beings live in conflict with themselves, with their societies and with the natural environment. . . A life guided by ignorance is full of conflict and disharmony.8 Because of this conflict, disharmony, and suffering, some people develop the desire to escape a life dominated by tanha. This desire is the beginning of wisdom. As wisdom grows, it

76 becomes easier to distinguish between what is of true benefit and what is not, and the desire for what is beneficial increases. In Buddhism, this desire for true well-being is called chanda. Chanda arises from intelligent reflection; tanha comes from the habitual stream of selforiented reactions. As people cultivate chanda they are less likely to see life as a conflict of interests and they are better able to harmonize their own interests with those of others. According to Payutto, Buddhists judge the ethical value of behavior by whether it is motivated by tanha or chanda, by ignorance or wisdom. When tanha is driving economic decisions, they tend to be amoral (not necessarily evil but lacking moral considerations), but when chanda is guiding them, they will be what Payutto calls morally skillful. From the Buddhist point of view, production, consumption and other economic activities are not ends in themselves; they are means, and the end to which they must lead is the development of well-being within the individual, within society and within the environment. Payutto suggests that the way to evaluate the ethical quality of economic activity is to look at the effects it has on the individual consumer, on society, and on the environment. He uses the examples of a bottle of whiskey and a Chinese dinner. Though their market prices may be the same, their social costs are not equal. The bottle of whiskey may damage the consumer's health, forcing him to spend money on medical treatment. The distillery which produced the whiskey may have released foul-smelling fumes into the air. This pollution has economic repercussions, forcing the government to spend resources on cleaning the environment. Moreover, one who drinks and suffers from a hangover on the job will work less efficiently, incurring more economic costs. Drinking can also contribute to crime, which has very high costs for society.

77 A second way to evaluate the ethical quality of economic activity is to determine which kind of desire is at its root. The most unethical economic activities are those that feed tanha while undermining well-being. Trade in tobacco, drugs, and prostitution are examples of detrimental economic activities geared solely toward satisfying a craving for pleasure.9 I believe that Payuttos description of the two kinds of desire is accurate. However, there are two potential misconceptions I want to correct. First, the distinction between good and bad desires should not lead us to believe that it is all right to cling to some desires. All desires are to be transcended eventually, including the desire for enlightenment. Second, we should not make the mistake of thinking that certain products are, in themselves, inherently bad. If we say that some products appeal only to tanha and restrict them, we restrict individuals ability to find creative ways to use such products to aid their training. Payutto suggests, for example, that trade in illegal drugs satisfies only tanha. However, in many states, the drug marijuana has been approved for medical use, though it remains illegal at the federal level. Those who use the drug for conditions ranging from multiple sclerosis to glaucoma would disagree that its use is motivated only by tanha. I am not arguing for the legalization of marijuana or other drugs, only that it is a mistake to think any product serves only tanha. As a Buddhist, I attempt to use all products without tanha, and I would rather not have my choices constrained by others who feel that some products can never be used for good ends. Inoue echos Payuttos sentiments when he says that Buddhism distinguishes between positive desires that affirm life and negative, self-centered desires that do not affirm life but work against it10. He says it is beyond doubt that the worlds resources will be depleted if nations do not learn to deal with increasing populations and the mismanagement of desire. We must have

78 the strength to say no to inessential products, a strength that leads to freedom from compulsive consumption. This reflects the Buddhist view that happiness is not achieved by consuming more and more but by being able to enjoy the simple, beautiful things in life.11 To distinguish productive from unproductive desires, it is necessary to discuss how craving or tanha evolves. The next section will deal with what some consider the central insight of Buddhism, the law of cause and effect. How Craving and Clinging Develop According to the Pali Canon, the Buddha reached enlightenment by coming to fully understand the process by which ignorance leads to craving which leads to suffering. A brief description of this process will provide the basis for dealing more effectively with craving in the context of work and management. The development of craving is covered in one of the central suttas in the Pali Canon, the Mahanidana Sutta, sometimes translated as the Discourse on Cause and Effect.12 Craving is part of a causal chain with 12 links, which are: 1) ignorance, 2) volitional formations (or unconscious impulses), 3) consciousness, 4) mind and body, 5) six sense bases, 6) contact, 7) feeling, 8) craving, 9) clinging, 10) conception, 11) birth, 12) aging and death. This process is sometimes represented graphically as a circle because it is the process that leads to rebirth.13 The traditional interpretation of these steps is that they occur over multiple individual lifetimes and that clinging in one lifetime leads to the existence of another life. The concept of rebirth, as distinct from reincarnation, does not imply that souls or selves pass from one life to another but only that clinging causes renewed existence.

79 Ignorance of emptiness leads to the desire for existence (volitional formations) and this desire produces a consciousness. Over time, the developing consciousness conceives of the distinction between mind and matter or body. Next, consciousness differentiates into the six senses (the five physical senses plus the perception of mental events). Having senses, the individual consciousness makes contact with the world. From this contact comes feelings that the individual craves and clings to. Clinging leads to a new existence, which is inevitably followed by death. The key steps in this process are those between contact and conception. I found a good simple example of this process in the book Mindfulness and Money.14 In their example, a woman who has had a difficult day at work sees a pair of shoes in a store window on the way home and buys them to cheer herself up; which she later regrets when she realizes how gawdy and useless the shoes are. On her way home from work, when she first saw the shoes (contact), she experienced pleasure (feeling). Because the shoes made her feel good for the first time that day, she wanted them (craving), bought them, and left the store happy with her new possession (clinging). The days experiences led to a subtle change in her. In a sense, she became a slightly different person (conception); a person who felt temporarily happy after a day of frustration. The process leading from contact to conception occurs when we crave and cling to consumer products; but it also occurs when we cling to an organizational identity. I can illustrate these steps using recent corporate scandals and a historical example. The behavior of executives like Dennis Koslowski, Bernie Ebbers, and Ken Lay who were involved in recent corporate scandals shows how we cling to corporate identities. These men encountered the trappings of wealth and power early in life (contact) and found them very

80 attractive (feeling). They developed a craving for these things and spent their careers pursuing them. Once they achieved them, they did what they felt was necessary to hold onto them (clinging) and, in the process, became new people (conception), first corporate leaders then criminals. History and literature are filled with examples of this process. Consider the story of King David and Bathsheba from the Bible. One day, the king happened to see Bathsheba bathing (contact), and was aroused by her (feeling). He developed a craving for her and they began an adulterous affair. Eventually, he sent Bathshebas husband Uriah to be killed in battle in order to possess her (clinging). In the process, he became a different person. As an adolescent, he was a war hero who killed Goliath. After sending Uriah to his death, he was a murderer. I found Joanna Macys discussion of this topic clear and informative. Her books Mutual Causality in Buddhism and General Systems Theory15 and World as Lover, World as Self16 emphasize that the cycle of rebirth is like a feedback loop in systems theory. Harmful actions performed at one time generate effects that increase the potential for harmful actions in the future. Though this process operates over multiple lifetimes, it can also be seen in a single life. The steps of craving, clinging, and conception occur constantly in most people. For example, we may see an advertisement for a consumer product, begin to crave the product, buy it and enjoy it for awhile, and then develop a craving for another product. In this process, our selves change. We become consumers, searching for products to enhance our identities. Craving and clinging are two distinct processes and it is useful to consider the way craving is transformed into clinging. The Pali word for craving, tanha, literally means thirst.17 Buddhadasa Bhikkhu18 says it refers to desire, craving, thirst, or blind want.

81 The Pali word upadana is translated as attachment, clinging, grasping: to hold onto something foolishly, to regard things as I and mine, to take things personally and is contrasted with samadana, which refers to holding objects or views mindfully and wisely.19 In illustrations of the 12 steps, upadana is often represented as a person picking fruit from a tree, an image that suggests hoarding. The Agganna Sutta in the Pali Canon contains what might be called the Buddhist creation myth. In this sutta, the hoarding of food was one of the steps in the degradation of sentient beings from a heavenly to an earthly state.20 The word upadana is a compound composed of the root word dana, which means giving or donation, and the prefix upa, which means wrong or bad. Thus, the word usually translated as clinging means, literally, wrong giving. Once I begin to crave something, I make mistakes when I attempt to give it away or share it with others. Rather than sharing it freely, without gaining ideas, I regard it as mine and attempt to control or manipulate it for my own ends. Lakoff & Johnson21 and Varela, Thompson, & Rosch22 have described the interactions between Buddhism and cognitive science in their discussions of the ways abstract concepts reflect physical experience in the embodied mind. They suggest that we can better understand concepts like mental clinging by more carefully examining the physical metaphors on which they are based. Craving is similar to the physical act of reaching for something we do not already possess. It is an active process, accompanied by the feeling of need or desire. Clinging, on the other hand, is similar to holding on to something we do possess. At first we feel a sense of temporary calm at having gotten the thing we craved. Over time, however, we begin to fear it

82 will be taken from us, and we cling to it more tightly. This creates a kind of suffering that comes with possession. To make this physical analogy more vivid, you can perform a simple experiment. Place several coins in the palm of your hand and squeeze them tightly for ten seconds. Now squeeze them more tightly for another ten seconds. Repeat this until the pain becomes rather intense and the edges of the coins begin to cut into the flesh of the hand. Carefully note the feeling, which is a physical analog to upadana. Then relax the hand and let the coins fall on the ground. Carefully note the feeling, which is a physical analog to the mental feeling we get when we practice charity properly, without gaining ideas. The Buddha was once asked to summarize the whole of his teaching in a sentence and he said, Sabbe dhamma nalam abhinivesaya, which can be translated as It is not fitting that there should be any inclination towards any (psycho-physical) conditions.23 It can also be translated as Nothing whatsoever should be clung to or Do not bury oneself (ones mind) into anything.24 The word dhamma has a dual meaning that is not found in any single English word. It can mean things, phenomena, or existences. It can also mean views, ideas, or systems of thought. The word abhinivesaya can be translated as not clinging but also as not taking one-sided views. Thus, the Buddhas sentence might be translated as Do not identify with things or your ideas about them. When I cling to something, I mentally rehearse images of myself with it. In the process, I distort the object or idea to make it seem more permanent and more desirable. Thus, clinging is based on mental rehearsal that introduces one-sided views and biases into our perceptions of the

83 desired object. Abelson & Prentice, in an article entitled Beliefs as Possessions,25 have argued that the same process occurs when we cling to beliefs; especially beliefs about the self. We make decisions differently about things we possess than about things we merely wish to possess. When we possess something, we are willing to sacrifice to safeguard it. We are willing to risk money, and we are sometimes willing to risk our lives. For example, both sides in every war believe they are fighting to preserve something they already possess (often summarized as our way of life) rather than to satisfy a craving for their enemys resources. Advertisers and propagandists alike count on this effect when they attempt to create vivid images of the products or propaganda they want us to consume. If they can maket us visualize ourselves as owners of the new product or belief, they can convert craving or grasping into clinging. The fact that we value things we possess differently from things we crave affects the way we make economic and business decisions. In fact, this tendency puzzles economists because it violates their concept of economically rational behavior. To economists, a rational person puts the same value on a commodity whether he owns it or not; a $10 cup is worth $10 no matter who owns it. Therefore, if I value a cup at $10, I should be willing to buy or sell the cup for that price. However, when a person acquires something, its value changes in his eyes. In experiments, people consistently demand more to part with a cup given to them by the experimenter than they are willing to pay to buy the same cup.26 This experiment might sound trivial, but the effect is not. I think this research provides insights into the way we cling to objects, views, and our own identities. Researchers in the disciplines of behavioral economics and behavioral decision theory have documented some of the effects of our tendency to make decisions differently about things we

84 want versus things we possess. The most accessible account I have found is in Richard Thalers The Winners Curse.27 In Chapter 6 of this book, entitled The Endowment Effect, Loss Aversion, and the Status Quo bias, he observes the obvious fact that, people often demand much more to give up an object they possess than they would be willing to pay to acquire it.28. Thaler calls this propensity the Endowment Effect. Samuelson & Zeckhauser29 call it the Status Quo effect and Kahneman & Tversky30 call it Loss Aversion. The importance of this topic was recognized when Daniel Kahneman was awarded the 2002 Nobel Prize for his work on loss aversion and related biases in economic decision-making. The experiment with the cups I mentioned earlier demonstrates this bias, and Thaler cites a variety of additional experiments. Most readers can probably think of real-world examples. Thaler gives the example of a person who bought several bottles of wine for $10 apiece that had since appreciated to $200 per bottle. The owner occasionally drinks a bottle but would neither sell his own bottles for $200 or buy any more at that price. In many cases, we are reluctant to sell objects that have become part of our self-identity. Loss aversion helps explain several decisional biases, including the sunk cost fallacy, the framing bias, the illusion of control, overconfidence, and escalating commitment.31 Once we become committed to an identity (or a fixed view of the self) we invest our resources and pride in it; we have incurred sunk costs. We tend to frame all problems in terms of threats to the identity. By constantly attempting to preserve the identity, we develop overconfidence in our own ability to control the events and behavior that threaten our identities, leading to escalating commitment to the fixed view of the self. Though researchers have used a variety of names for this process, Buddhists know it as just one more manifestation of clinging.

85 The Mahanidana Sutta also makes reference to a secondary sequence from craving through clinging. It proceeds through the following steps:32 1) craving, 2) pursuit, 3) gain, 4) decision-making, 5) desire and lust, 6) attachments, 7) possessiveness, 8) stinginess, 9) safeguarding, 10) various evil, unwholesome phenomena. This secondary sequence gives additional insights into mental clinging. Once we crave something, we pursue it, gain it, and make decisions about it. During this process, we become attached to it and possessive of it. When this happens, we attempt to safeguard it. All of these activities are part of the process of mental clinging. As I said before, clinging to physical objects may be less destructive than clinging to views or opinions. In Pali, the word ditthi is often translated as views, but it might also be translated as speculative opinions.33 To the Buddha, speculative opinions were those that were not based on your own direct experience of reality. He did believe a person could have right views (samma-ditthi) that were based on the Four Noble Truths,34 and he distinguished right views as those based on personal experience and not mere speculative opinions. He also believed that some speculative opinions were particularly pernicious. He called these miccha-ditthi.35 Conception and the Birth of the Self The Buddhist conception of craving and clinging is consistent with common sense for Westerners. However, the next stages in the chain of cause and effect are counterintuitive to most of us. According to the Buddha, clinging leads to conception and birth. As I noted earlier, the traditional interpretation is that clinging in one life leads to birth in another. This doctrine is discussed in detail elsewhere, but I will not go into it here.36

86 I and many other Westerners have trouble with the concept of rebirth from one life to the next and prefer to remain agnostic about the question. However, as I mentioned earlier in the chapter, the rebirth of the self also happens many times within a single lifetime. This is not a mystical truth but simply a fact that can be verified through introspection. Kaza,37 in describing the process, gives this example: The more one grasps after consumer goods or values, the more one becomes a consumer, leading to the birth of the self-defined ego form that defines life primarily as consumption. Understanding how this happens is the key to mindfulness. The Pali word for conception is Bhava. However, this word is difficult to translate. In the pictorial representations of the cycle, it is portrayed as a man and a woman having sex. Buddhadasa Bhiku translates it as Becoming, being, existence: gestation in the womb of ignorance.38 The term Bhava might also mean identification. When we identify with an object, an organization, or an ideology, we embrace the most destructive form of clinging. As the 19th century psychologist William James observed, a persons concept of self expands to embrace all that is his and all that might potentially be called his. When we cling to an object of desire, we invest our selves in it; we form a new identity based on the desired object. What we desire is the new identity that comes with the object. If, for example, we desire to join a particular social group or profession, we imagine ourselves with a new identity based on the group. The Buddha saw the self as a construction rather than an entity that exists and can be observed directly. This strikes some people as nonsense. They would say that it is easy to perceive your self; in fact, some would say we are conscious of our selves all the time. The

87 Buddha suggested that we examine our own experiences and decide whether these people are right. What does it mean to say we are conscious of our selves? In fact, we are not conscious of our selves all the time. People can transcend the self and perceive phenomena without looking through the lens of the self. In fact, some research suggests that a great many people have done this at one time or another in their lives. Surveys discussed by Greeley,39 Hay and Morisy40 and Thomas and Cooper41 showed that about one-third of people in the United States and Great Britain experienced some sort of alteration in their ordinary day-to-day working conceptions of self, often involving experience of or absorption in an expanded consciousness or a higher power. Some psychologists think that when you have such experiences you are losing your grasp on reality. But if this is true, people who have the experiences should show other symptoms of psychological distress. Yet, they dont. In fact, people who report such mystical experiences tend to have greater feelings of psychological well-being.42 Such experiences may actually represent beneficial insights into alternative views of reality or the self. Later work by Hood43 on a scale to measure mystical experiences and subsequent research44 give a more detailed understanding of experiences that involve a breakdown of the self. This research suggests that literally tens of millions of people have been able to step outside the self temporarily and gain new insights into the ways they should lead their lives. The Buddha drew parallels between the construction of a self and the construction of a house. In fact, according to the Pali Canon, when he attained enlightenment he said, I see you housebuilder. You will not build this house again. When we build the house of the self, Mara, the Lord of Illusion, is the general contractor. He subcontracts with the five skandas, the five

88 kinds of things we can cling to (physical form, feelings, perceptions, mental formations, and consciousness) to handle the details of the construction of each individual house. Once Mara has constructed the house, it is remodeled from time to time. For some people, the self is a serviceable structure, not too ostentatious or too mean, that is designed according to reasonable philosophical and spiritual blueprints. For others, the self is a chaotic and even monstrous structure resembling the Winchester Mystery House, built by the unbalanced heir to the Winchester rifle fortune, with rooms added by whim. Odin45 has shown the parallels between Zen Buddhists and American Pragmatists like William James and John Dewey in their views of the nature of the self. James, in Principles of Psychology (published in1890),46 provides the best early summary of this perspective, in which the self is seen as a mental and social construct that guides us when we make our life decisions. Later work in psychology has developed this perspective into the concept of a self-schema. What is a Self For? One question that has always troubled me as a Buddhist is why do we have a self at all? Considering the trouble caused by clinging to a self, and the fact that it is a mental construction, an illusion, why did the perception of a self arise at all; why cant we just get rid of it? For me, the answer can be found in research on the psychology of decision-making. In short, we use the self (or self-schema) to bring past experience to bear on current life problems. We cannot do without it. A schema is a mental and perceptual structure, a way of thinking that provides a framework for interpreting events and making decisions.47 In understanding the world and making life decisions, schemas are like scripts for plays, like lenses, like computer programs, and

89 like maps. Like scripts, they direct our actions. Like lenses, they focus and filter our perceptions. Like computer programs, they allow us to access information in memory. Like maps, they are symbolic representations of reality that allow us to find our way in unfamiliar circumstances. We have schemas that structure our perceptions and guide our actions in all important areas of our lives, from ordering food in a restaurant to acting out our identities as employees and as Buddhists. The self-schema is a kind of master-schema that encompasses schemas for all aspects of our lives. It tells individuals when and how to play a particular role, such as manager, spouse, or member of a religious community. In an earlier book,48 I provide a more thorough discussion of this topic supported by readings from the psychology literature. When you make important decisions, the self-schema coordinates a network of separate identities that provide different perspectives on the decision. Self-schemas change over time, and identities that were once peripheral become more central. The view of the self as composed of separate social identities in potential conflict has implications for business decision-making that have been outlined by management researchers Pratt and Foreman, and myself.49 Identities contain social roles, providing structure and meaning for them.50 According to Castells, For a given individual, there may be a plurality of identities. Yet, such a plurality is a source of stress and contradiction in both self-representation and social action.51 Figure 1 represents some of the important identities an individual might hold. It is a model similar to the one I developed in my earlier book,52 but I have modeled it on a Tibetan image of the Six Worlds (heaven, hell, human beings, animals, fighting deities and hungry ghosts).

90 An individuals work identity might include the roles of supervisor, project team member, and subordinate. The family identity could include roles like parent, spouse, or child. The citizen identity would contain roles such as those of voter and member of a political party and political interest groups. A persons ethnic identity might involve participation in ethnic social functions and working to advance the social and economic status of his or her ethnic group. We all possess a physical identity that encompass our gender, age, and state of health. We play different social roles depending on whether we are male or female, old or young, healthy or disabled. Finally, many of us have an identity that relates to our spiritual, religious, or ethical behavior. Thomas Tweed53 calls this our religious identity. Tweed observes that a great many people call themselves Buddhists, but they vary from deeply committed Buddhist monks to night-stand Buddhists, for whom Buddhism consists of reading some Buddhist books before going to sleep. In our culture, peoples spiritual or religious identities may involve a mix of different spiritual traditions. Our religious identities could include a variety roles such as student, meditator, worshiper and teacher. ----------------insert Figure 1 ----------------Identities are evoked by the decisions we face in our daily lives. Making decisions and commitments further defines and shapes identities and the relationships between them. When I have to make a decision, the way I view the decision depends on the identity I assume. For example, my own decision to retire seemed very different when viewed through the lense of my work identity than when viewed through my family identity.

91 Alternate identities within the self-schema generate views of the decision, establish evaluation criteria, and create preferences that often suggest different choices. The final choice is made by the self. However, this self is not a substantial, constant part of an individual. It is a schema developed by the individual over time through past decisions. The self-schema is essential to us because it provides a structure for organizing our memory, it helps us to persist in difficult courses of action, it enables us to make consistent choices among conflicting desires or demands, and it allows us to learn by imitation or apprenticeship. Our self-schemas make our actions more consistent to people with whom we work and live, and this makes coordinated social action possible. When making ethical business decisions, people attempt to listen to the voice of conscience. In a self-schema with multiple identities, the voice of conscience may be the voice of an identity the individual had considered peripheral. Often, by considering the decision from the perspective of this peripheral identity, the individual can broaden her perspective. I believe the wise use of multiple identities allows individuals to make more moral decisions; more importantly, it allows them to develop creative alternatives for dealing with moral dilemmas. Mindless Identification with Organizations, Ideologies, and Views Though the self-schema is useful, there is a real danger that we will mindlessly accept the reality of the self and mindlessly seek to enhance and protect it. Buddhists call this clinging to self and Christians refer to it as pride. The Christian term, pride, is grounded in the Greek word hybris (from which we get the English word hubris). Protestant theologian Reinhold Niebuhr, for example, talks about pride in terms Buddhists would understand. He says that we fall victim to pride because we realize we are limited beings and are anxious about our inability to control the

92 world we live in. Many people express their pride through identification with social groups like nations, churches, classes or races.54 We try to enhance the self through identification with things greater than ourselves, things we can incorporate into our self-schemas, including the organizations we work for and live in, and the ideologies and views we embrace. Psychologists have done a good deal of research on organizational identification in the last several decades and I have summarized this research in an earlier book.55 We identify with ideologies and views in much the same way as we identify with organizations, so I will briefly summarize some of the points I made in the earlier book. Organizational identification is one form of psychological attachment that occurs when members adopt the defining characteristics of the organization as defining characteristics for themselves. Very strongly identified individuals are, in some sense, merged with their organizations. Strong identification with organizations or views can be a good thing. It motivates people to make personal sacrifices for others. However, mindless identification is another matter. It has lead to the weakening of social identities that are not consistent with the organization or ideology, unethical behavior in service of the ideology, and attempts to suppress diversity of views.56 Management scholars have recently begun exploring the phenomenon of over identification, in which the self is diminished and whatever is unique about the individual is constrained by the connection with the organization. What they call over identification I will call mindless identification. Gioia and Thomas57 have shown that during change, top managements' identification with the organization affects the way they interpret issues and their choice of strategies to deal with these issues. Mindless identification may cause managers to think too

93 narrowly about business problems and to focus only on information and solutions that do not threaten their image of the business. We identify with organizations and views partly because our mental capacities are limited and we must have rules and shortcuts to simplify our decisions. Our organizational and ideological identities give us clear rules for our behavior and help reduce the effort involved in thinking and deciding. The more strongly we identify with an organization, the more easily we can decide how to behave within our organizational role. The more strongly we identify with an ideology, the less we have to think for ourselves. When I fall victim to mindless identification, I assume that my organizational or ideological identity has a concrete reality. I fail to keep in mind that it is simply part of a schema that provides the basis for decisions and actions. I then cling to my organization or ideology as a source of security. Threats to my organization will be met with defensive actions designed to preserve the organization's existence rather than exploratory actions aimed at discovering the ways the objectives of the organization might be served by other means. An entire chapter of the Dalai Lamas recent book The Art of Happiness at Work58 is devoted to the topic of work and identity. The Dalai Lama describes his own experience with monks and officials who become over-identified with the perks and prestige of their office and cling to these things in ways that are bad for their own training and often harmful to others. He suggests that we identify instead with the essence of our work, which is service to others. This may help reduce attachment to the aspects of the job that enhance our own egos. I think this is an important truth, and in this chapter, I am attempting to provide more detail on the ways identification affects crucial business and life decisions.

94 Strong identification may lead to impoverishment of the self-schema through a process called identity fixation.59 As my work identity or religious identity expands, other identities (for example, parent and community member) will shrink and the links between these identities and other elements of the self-schema will fade. Thus, the diversity and complexity of the links will be reduced, a process I have called self-schema impoverishment.60 When strongly identified individuals face decisions, they wont think about the decisions from the perspective of multiple identities. Further, they wont give adequate attention to the views of those who disagree with them. What information they do receive is likely to be biased in ways that preserve their self-image. The effect of restricted of information processing is to make the decision seem simpler than it actually is. Our identities provide the framework through which we understand and function in the world, and they must change as we learn more about the world and progress through our lives. Therefore, the creation (or rebirth) of new identities is constructive. However, the reification of the objects or identities we crave is extremely counterproductive. The Buddha felt it was the root of all suffering. Fortunately, there is an escape. Mindful Action and Identification Obviously, mindful action is central to Buddhism and has been explicitly discussed since the time of the Buddha. However, mindful identification is not a term that has traditionally been part of the Buddhist vocabulary and requires further elaboration. I want to draw on psychological research on mindfulness and the contrast between mindful and mindless action to explain mindful identification. According to psychologist Ellen Langer, mindfulness is a habitual state of mind in which old schemas are continually reexamined and redefined. Mindlessness as the rigid reliance

95 on old patterns of thought, while mindfulness involves the continual creation of new ones. Mindfulness includes openness to multiple points of view, and a focus on process rather than outcome.61 Langer says, When we are mindful, we implicitly or explicitly (1) view a situation from several perspectives, (2) see information presented in the situation as novel, (3) attend to the context in which we are perceiving the information, and eventually, (4) create new categories.62 Suzuki Roshi discusses mindfulness in the context of what he calls Beginners Mind. He contrasts this state of mind with Expert's Mind by saying that, in the beginners mind there are many possibilities, but in the expert's mind there are few. Experts have very detailed and complex schemas within their domain of expertise. Experts in the game of chess, for example, possess schemas that specify how they should respond to almost any board positions. Beginners do not have complex schemas; they are aschematic and must consciously "think through" each move. Experts schemas embody assumptions about chess strategy that reduce the number of possible moves they consider. In chess, this is a good thing. It allows experts to instantly eliminate foolish moves that beginners waste time pondering. In complex social decisions, however, the rules are not fixed or clearly understood as they are in chess. In life decisions, options that seem foolish at one time may seem brilliant at another time because the rules of the game have changed. In crucial decisions, it is dangerous to exclude options based on outmoded assumptions.

96 Beginner's Mind is a kind of intellectual humility that allows people to mindfully question the assumptions embodied in their schemas. The most difficult and potentially most rewarding applications of Beginner's Mind involve the self-schema. The topic of mindfulness in the workplace has been discussed by Langer and recently elaborated upon by management researchers.63 Fiol and OConnor outline ways that mindfulness can help individuals and organizations avoid premature commitment to fads (what they call bandwagon effects) while Weick et al. discuss organizational processes and procedures that can increase group mindfulness and make organizational decisions more reliable. John Kabat-Zinn64 has developed a mindfulness training program that could be useful in developing mindful identification as discussed by Langer and others. His program emphasizes paying attention to thoughts, perceptions, and feelings without making judgments about them. It contains a mixture of formal meditation and practices aimed at increasing mindfulness in daily life. Kabat-Zinns method has proven effective in dealing with depression in a number of clinical settings,65 though a recent review of studies on the effects of mindfulness training66 has raised questions about whether it really does reduce stress. Bishop observes that many of the studies have methodological flaws and that they do not provide support for recommending mindfulness training as a method for reducing stress. Bishops conclusions reflect the experience of those who attempt to practice mindfulness; it does not always reduce stress. In fact, it may increase stress if it forces us to face stressful facts we have been avoiding. However, the benefits of facing the truth may outweigh the stress that comes from facing it. Mindful action and mindful decision-making will make individuals more aware of their different identities and the potential conflict between them. This conflict might then help to

97 correct some of the decisional biases that can result from the a narrow range of identities. Individuals in organizations who practice mindful identification should be less subject to autobiographical memory distortion, group mindlessness, suppression of dissent, and escalating commitment than those who fall victim to mindless identification. However, mindful individuals who take seriously the implications of conflicting identities might experience more internal conflict than those who automatically adopt a single identity as a basis for each decision and action. This internal conflict may be the price we pay for mindful identification. The Pali Canon says that mindfulness leads to a causal sequence that offers escape from the sequence of cause and effect leading to suffering. This causal sequence is found in the Anguttara Nikaya (the book of Gradual Sayings)67 and in the Sanyutta Nikaya (the book of the Kindred Sayings)68 and is explicated by Payutto.69 According to the Sanyutta Nikaya, it begins with the suffering caused by aging and death. Suffering gives rise to faith or belief in the teachings of the Buddha that forms the basis for the practice of mindfulness. The next step is joy (in Pali, pamojja). This is a pleasant state caused by the knowledge that escape from dukkha is possible. However, it is not as intense as the next step, which is rapture (in Pali, piti). Piti is a difficult word to translate. It refers to a kind of joy that is so intense it is difficult to imagine for those who have not engaged in meditation. Piti can involve a joy that eventually becomes so intense that it overwhelms the feeling of an individual self, so that the self is gone and only piti remains. Piti, however intense and pleasant it may be, is not really conducive to meditation. Eventually, it fades and is replaced by serenity (or, in Pali, sukkha). This is a kind of calm joy that IS conducive to meditation. This leads to a kind of happiness that allows a person to concentrate

98 on the truths expounded by the Buddha and, eventually, to knowledge or insight into things as they really are. In other words, it leads to an awareness that things we thought were real and permanent are, in fact, impermanent and unreal. According to the Anguttara Nikaya, suffering leads to good conduct, which leads to freedom from remorse, which, in turn, leads to joy and the remaining steps, ending with a knowledge of things as they really are. This sequence complements the one in the Sanyutta Nikaya, suggesting that faith in the Buddhas teaching leads to good conduct and freedom from remorse, which allows the trainee to engage in the sort of meditation that leads to joy and the remaining steps. This sequence is seldom discussed in connection with the Mahanidana Sutta on dependent origination, but to me it offers a hopeful view that can be a relief after contemplating the depressing implications of the process of dependent origination. Experiencing suffering can eventually show a person that the Buddha is right about craving leading to suffering, which will increase faith in the Buddhas teaching. This faith will lead to sincere practice, accompanied by serenity and concentration, which leads to knowledge about how to train more effectively in daily life. If suffering leads eventually to enlightenment, does this mean that we should not attempt to reduce suffering? If we are interested in helping others to enlightenment, perhaps we should even increase their suffering. This is a very important question and I do not want to dismiss it lightly. In fact, I encourage readers to work out their own answers. I think the answer is that suffering in itself does not automatically lead to faith in the Buddha followed by sincere training and enlightenment. Suffering must occur in the proper context, so that the sufferer understands

99 that it is not the result of bad luck, other peoples malice, or a vengeful god ; it is merely the result of causal processes that he himself can reverse. If we are indifferent to the suffering of others, or if we increase their suffering, we actually encourage their mistaken belief that other people want only to serve their own interests at the expense of everyone else. If, on the other hand, we behave compassionately toward them, we help them to understand that suffering can be reduced and that compassion is a part of the human condition. This understanding can help them in their own training. Practicing mindfulness makes us aware of the role of compassion in our training; expressing compassion is not something we do only for others but also for ourselves. Expressing compassion is part of our own path to enlightenment. By helping us question our assumptions about our selves, mindfulness helps to understand the real nature of compassion. Our jobs are good places to cultivate mindfulness and to practice compassion. If we can avoid clinging to one-sided views of our co-workers, our business, our selves, and our Buddhism, we may find that others with whom we work are a source of wisdom who can help us with our own training. The better we know our selves, the more we can learn from others. Or, as the 13thCentury Zen roshi Dogen Zenji said, To study the self is to transcend the self. To transcend the self is to be enlightened by all beings.70 Conclusions In this chapter, I have summarized Buddhist views on desire, craving, clinging and conception and how they relate to the construction of the self. Using recent research in psychology and management, I tried to draw the implications of Buddhist teachings for the ways we invest our selves in the organizations within which we live and work.

100 This material provided the basis for the discussion of mindfulness, which I feel is the central aspect of Buddhist teaching and practice that has remained constant as Buddhism adapted to new countries and new historical realities. In Buddhisms long history, doctrinal rules about how we should work and conduct our business have changed; we cannot expect to find explicit answers to our questions in a set of Buddhist Commandments on Work. Buddhists must mindfully examine the complex issues involved in their work decisions and develop their own answers to questions about how to bring their spiritual practice into their work. In the following chapters, I will try to provide a model for this process. I will try to mindfully inquire about some very important questions on Buddhism and develop my own tentative answers. Some Better Questions I hope I provided some answers to the questions I posed at the beginning of the chapter. In the process of answering them, better questions have occurred to me. How can I distinguish between good and bad desires while remembering that all desire must be abandoned? How can I understand and avoid the cognitive biases associated with clinging? Does clinging really lead to the birth of a new self? How, exactly, does this happen? Of what are we mindful when we work mindfully?

101 1. Inoue, S. 1997. Putting Buddhism to Work: A New Approach to Management and Business. Tokyo: Kodansha International, p. 105. 2. Richmond, L. 1998. Work as a Spiritual Practice. New York: Broadway Books, pp. 249-251. 3. Ibid., p. 249. 4. Ibid., p. 250. 5. Payutto, P. 1992. Buddhist Economics. Geocities.com/Athens/Academy/9280/econ.htm. 6. Ibid., Chapter 2, pp. 4-5. 7. Ibid., Chapter 2, p.6. 8. Ibid., Chapter 2, p. 6. 9. Ibid., Chapter 2, p. 8. 10. Inoue, Putting Buddhism to Work..., p. 105. 11. Inoue, ibid., p. 106. 12. Walsh, M. 1987. Thus Have I Heard: Long Discourses of the Buddha. London: Wisdom Publications, pp. 223-230. 13. See, for example, Payutto, P.1995. Buddhadhamma. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, p. 100. 14. Kulananda & Houlder, 2002. Mindfulness and Money, pp. 42-47. 15. Macy, J. 1991a. Mutual Causality in Buddhism and General Systems Theory: The Dharma of Natural Systems. Buffalo, NY.: SUNY Press. 16. Macy, J. 1991b. World as Lover, World as Self. Berkeley, CA.: Parralax Press. 17. Rhys-Davids, C. 1990. Kindred Sayings. Oxford: Pali Text Society, p. vi. 18. Buddhadasa Bhikkhu. 1994. Heartwood of the Bodhi Tree. Boston: Wisdom Publications, p. 140. 19. Ibid., p. 141. 20. Walsh, M. 1987. Thus Have I Heard: Long Discourses of the Buddha, p. 412.

102 21. Lakoff G. & Johnson M., 1999. Philosophy in the Flesh: The Embodied Mind and Its Challenge to Western Philosophy. New York: Basic Books. 22. Varela, F., Thompson, E., & Rosch, E. 1995. The Embodied Mind: Cognitive Science and Human Experience. Cambridge, MA.: MIT Press. 23. Horner, I. 1992. The Book of Discipline (Vinaya-Pitaka). Oxford, England: Pali Text Society, p. 306. 24. Buddhadasa Bhikkhu. 1994. Heartwood of the Bodhi Tree. Boston: Wisdom Publications., pp. 15, 117. 25. Abelson, A. & Prentice, P. 1989. Beliefs as possessions. In Pratkanis, A., Breckler, S., & Greenwald, A. (Eds.) Attitude Structure and Function. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, pp. 361-381. 26. Thaler, R. 1992. The Winners Curse: Paradoxes and Anomalies of Economic Life. New York: Free Press. 27. Ibid. 28. Ibid., p. 63. 29. Samuelson, W. & Zeckhauser, R. 1988. Status quo bias in decision-making. Research in Experimental Economics, 3: 105-137. 30. Kahneman, D. & Tversky, A. 1984. Choices, values, and frames. American Psychologist, 39, April: 341-350. 31. Hodgkinson, G. & Maule, A. 2002. The individual in the strategy process: Insights from behavioral decision theory and cognitive mapping. In Mapping Strategic Knowledge. Huff, A. & Jenkins, M. (Eds.) Sage: London, 196-209; Hodgkinson, G., Brown, N., Maule, A., Glaister, K., & Pearman, A. 1999. Breaking the frame: An analysis of strategic cognition and decision-making under uncertainty. Strategic Management Journal, 20, 977-985; Hodgkinson, G., Brown, N., Maule, A., Glaister, K., & Pearman, A. 2002. Further reflections on the elimination of framing bias in strategic decision-making. Strategic Management Journal, 23, 1069-1076; Langer, E. 1983. The Psychology of Control. Beverly Hills: Sage; Schwenk, C. 1984. Cognitive simplification processes in strategic decision-making. Strategic Management Journal, 5: 111-128; Schwenk, C. 1986. Information, cognitive bias, and commitment to a course of action. Academy of Management Review, 11: 298-310; Staw, 1981 32. Bhikkhu Bodhii, 1982, p.143) 33. Walsh, Thus Have I Heard, ibid. 34. See Walshs discussion of the Mahasatipatthana sutta. Ibid., p. 348.

103 35. Ibid., pp. 558, 596. 36. Macy, J. 1991a, Mutual Causality in Buddhism and General Systems Theory: The Dharma of Natural Systems. Buffalo, NY.: SUNY Press; Macy, J. 1991b, World as Lover, World as Self. Berkeley, CA.: Parralax Press.; Story, F. 1975. Rebirth as Doctrine and Experience. Kandy, Sri Lanka: Buddhist Publication Society; Willson, M. 1987. Rebirth and the Western Buddhist. London: Wisdom Publications. 37. Kaza, S. 2000. Overcoming the grip of consumerism. Buddhist-Christian Studies, 20: 23-42, p. 33. 38. Buddhadasa Bhikkhu. 1994. Heartwood of the Bodhi Tree. Boston: Wisdom Publications, p. 128. 39. Greeley, A. 1975. The Sociology of the Paranormal: A Reconnaissance. Beverly Hills, CA.: Sage. 40. Hay, D. & Morisy, A. 1978. Reports of ecstatic, paranormal, or religious experience in Great Britain and the United States: A comparison of trends. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 17: 255-268. 41. Thomas, L. & Cooper, P. 1978. Measurement and incidence of mystical experiences: An exploratory study. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion. 17: 433-437. 42. Greely, ibid.; Hay and Morisy, ibid. 43. Hood, R. 1975. The construction and preliminary validation of a measure of reported mystical experience. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion. 14: 29-41. 44. Caird, D. 1988. The structure of Hoods mysticism scale: A factor-analytic study. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 27: 122-126; Genia, V. 1997. The spiritual experience index: Revision and reformulation. Review of Religious Research, 38: 344-361; Reinert, D. & Stifle, K. 1993. Hoods mysticism scale revisited: A factor-analytic replication. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 32: 383-388; Stifler, K.; Greer, J.; Sneck, W.; &Dovenmuehle, R. 1993. An empirical investigation of the discriminability of reported mystical experiences among religious contemplative, psychotic inpatients, and normal adults. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 32: 366-372. 45. Odin, S. 1996. The Social Self in Zen and American Pragmatism. Albany, NY: SUNY Press. 46. James, W. 1890/1950. Principles of Psychology. New York: Dover. 47. Schwenk, C. 2002. Identity, Learning, and Decision-Making in Changing Organizations. New York: Quorum Books.

104 48. Ibid. 49. Pratt, M. & Foreman, P. 2000. Clarifying managerial responses to multiple organizational identities. Academy of Management Review, 25: 18-24; Schwenk, ibid. 50. Giddens, A. 1991. Modernity and Self-Identity. Stanford, CA.: Stanford University Press. 51. Castells, M. 1997. The Power of Identity. Oxford, UK: Blackwell, p.6. 52. Schwenk, ibid. 53. Tweed, T. 2002. Who is a Buddhist? In Prebish, C. & Baumann, M. (Eds.) Westward Dharma. Berkeley, CA.: University of California Press. 54. Hordern, W. 1955. A Laymans Guide to Protestant Theology. New York: MacMillan, pp. 157-161. 55. Schwenk, ibid. 56. Ashforth, B. & Kreiner, G. 1999. How can you do it? Dirty work and the challenge of constructing a positive identity. Academy of Management Review, 24: 413-432; Dutton, J., Dukerich, J. & Harquail, C. 1994. Organizational images and member iddentification. Administrative Science Quarterly, 39: 239-263; Pratt, M. 1998. How do people identify with organizations? In Whetten, D. & Godfrey, P. (Eds.) Identity in Organizations. Thousand Oaks, CA.: Sage, pp. 192-199. 57. Gioia, D. & Thomas, J. 1996. Identity, image, and issue interpretation, Administrative Science Quarterly, 41: 370-403. 58. Gyatso, T. (the Dalai Lama) & Cutler, H. 2003. The Art of Happiness at Work. New York: Riverhead Press. 59. McGregor, I. & Little, B. 1998. Personal projects, happiness, and meaning. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74: 494-512. 60. Schwenk, ibid. 61. Langer, E. 1989. Mindfulness. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley; Langer, E. 1997. The Power of Mindful Learning. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley. 62. (Langer, 1989, p.78) 63. Fiol, M. & OConnor, E. 2003. Waking up! Mindfulness in the face of bandwagons. Academy of Management Review, 28: 54-70; Schwenk, ibid.; Weick, K., Sutcliffe, K. & Obstfeld, D. 1999. Organizing for high reliability: Processes of collective mindfulness. Research in Organizational Behavior, 21: 81-123.

105 64. Kabat-Zinn, J.1990. Full Catastrophe Living. New York, NY., Bantam/Doubleday/Dell. 65. Teasdale, J., Segal, Z., & Williams, M. 1994. How does cognitive therapy prevent depressive relapse and why should attentional control (mindfulness) training help? Behavior Research and Therapy, 33: 25-39; Williams, M. 2002. Mindfulness training and cognitive therapy. Psychosomatic Medicine, 64: 71-84; Williams, M., Teasdale, J., Segal, Z., & Soulsby, J. 2000. Mindfulness-based cognitive therapy reduces overgeneral autobiographical memory in formerly depressed patients. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 109: 150-155. 66. Bishop, S. 2002. What do we really know about mindfulness-based stress reduction? Psychosomatic Medicine, 64: 71-84. 67. Woodward, F. (translator) 1979. The Gradual Sayings (Anguttara Nikaya) London: Routledge, pp. 1-3 68. Rhys-Davids, C. 1990. Kindred Sayings. Oxford: Pali Text Society, pp. 25-27. 69. Payutto, P.1995. Buddhadhamma. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, pp. 181185. 70. Dogen Zenji. 1233/1975. Genjokoan. In Nishayam, K. (Tr.) Shobogenzo. Tokyo, Japan: Nakayama Shobo, p. 1.

106 CHAPTER 4: GETTING AND USING MONEY Riches destroy the ignorant, yet not those who seek the further shore. (Dhammapada, # 355) "One is the road that leads to wealth, another the road that leads to Nibbana. If a monk, disciple of the Buddha, has learned this, he will yearn not for honor, but will foster solitude." (Dhammapada, # 75) Introduction Buddhists and Christians agree on common sense answers to most of the essential questions we might ask about acquiring and using wealth. Both traditions agree that no one should ever pursue wealth rather than wisdom. For monks in both Buddhist and Catholic traditions, the accumulation of personal wealth is discouraged or forbidden. For laypeople, however, honestly acquired wealth is a blessing that allows us to enjoy the pleasures of life, support a family, and make charitable contributions. Though I will focus on Buddhism in this chapter, I believe most religious traditions would agree with the advice given. In discussing how Buddhists should get and use money, I will touch on entrepreneurship and small business management. Many of the Buddhist books I described in Chapter 2 deal with entrepreneurship; and I will draw on these authors insights in considering whether there is a Buddhist approach to starting your own businesses. In the next chapter, I will discuss how to deal with the decisions that come up as a small, entrepreneurial business grows and becomes a large organization with a more complex structure. Some Good Questions

107 What are the habits and practices that lead to wealth? How does Buddhism encourage entrepreneurship? How do we enjoy wealth without being corrupted by it? What is the best use of wealth? How do I practice charity? Buddhist Views on Right Livelihood Wealth should be acquired through honest work. Therefore, a central part of Buddhist teaching concerns Right Livelihood. Are there any businesses that are, in themselves, inconsistent with Buddhism? In other words, are there any industries, such as the defense industry, in which Buddhists should not work? Many Buddhists believe so. The Buddha himself urged his followers to avoid certain occupations, including the production or sale of weapons of war, production or sale of liquor, hunting, and fishing. Kaza feels there are some additional occupations modern Buddhists should avoid. She says, In modern terms, a Buddhist following the liberative path could not be a pest exterminator, chemical farmer, genetic engineer, or exotic pet collector. If we consider ads as intoxicants for products, advertising would also be wrong livelihood. Anyone involved in a consumption-related livelihood that relies on the slaughter of animals (research medicine, for example), destructive extraction of resources (mining, logging, oil development), or deliberate poisoning of air, earth, or water (manufacturing, agriculture) would be involved in harming other beings. 1 Some Buddhists, like Kaza, would rule out a great many occupations, including medical research if animals are used. However, other Buddhists like myself feel that there are few occupations that can be categorically labeled morally unacceptable. As I noted in Chapter 2, Buddhists including Suzuki Shosan in the 17th Century and Jiyu Kennett in the 21st Century have emphasized that ALL occupations are the work of the Buddha.

108 This debate relates to my discussion of tanha and chanda, good and bad desires, in Chapter 3. There, I said that there are no products that appeal only to tanha and are, therefore, bad in themselves. I think the same is true of businesses. Take the defense industry and the firearms industries as examples. Companies in this industry produces weapons of mass destruction for our own government as well as weapons for sale to other governments. Still, I believe it is possible to work in the defense industry out of a sincere desire to make war less likely. Lacking the Buddhas power of seeing into the minds of others, I am reluctant to judge others motives for choosing a job. I have enough difficulty deciding what is Right Livelihood for myself and I would prefer not to take on the responsibility for other peoples training by making judgments about their career choices. Both the Buddhist monk Tich Nhat Hanh and the activist Catholic priest Daniel Berrigan express concern about religious organizations having their own investments or becoming too dependent on money .2 Often, religions organizations become compromised by their financial interests which reduces their ablilty to pursue social justice. In the 1970's Nhat Hanhs own Buddhist monastic order was reluctant to invest in any profit-making businesses. He said, . . .our strength lies in the fact that we have no investments.3 However, the order has since invested in a publishing house. Buddhist Views on Acquiring Wealth One common misconception is that Buddhism condemns wealth and encourages poverty. In fact, Buddhists see danger in both extremes of poverty and wealth. American Zen roshi Bernard Glassman discusses the difference between the voluntary poverty of Buddhist monks, which is an aid to training, and involuntary poverty, which is a great misfortune worthy of our

109 active compassion. He conducted a week-long sesshin on the streets of New York, requiring participants to live as homeless people during this time to help them cultivate empathy. He notes that the Buddha himself required his monks to remain homeless during the dry season and to beg for food to sustain themselves. According to Glassman, Living that way gives each day real vitality. It makes you extremely active. It gets rid of complacency and allows you to function without fetters. I really believe that to be poor in this sense is the richest way we can live. But that is not the same as living in poverty. When we live in poverty, we are always hungrywe feel we dont have enough food, clothing, or housing. On the other hand, when we live in luxury, we go through life feeling stuffed and bloated, as if weve overeaten.4 Writers from other Buddhist traditions have made similar comments on this topic. Payutto states that, in the Theravada tradition, lay people are never encouraged to live in poverty. On the contrary, they are encouraged to amass wealth in rightful ways, recognizing that wealth is one of the results of good kamma. However, laypeople are emphatically discouraged from getting money in dishonest ways. Also, once they have acquired wealth, they are warned not to become enslaved by it and create suffering as a result of it. Further, Buddhists are warned not to accumulate riches out of stinginess, which will make them reluctant to spend their money for the benefit and well-being of themselves, their dependents, or other people. The opposite extreme, squandering wealth foolishly or indulgently, is, of course, also criticized.5 There are similarities between Buddhism and Christianity on the topics of wealth and commerce but there are also subtle differences. Inoue, a Japanese executive in the Zen tradition,

110 says that early Buddhist monastic communities regarded money as a symbol of materialism and rejected it even in the form of donations, but eventually Buddhism came to view money in more neutral terms. In particular, in East Asian Buddhism, money was seen in a very positive light. Inoue cites the Avatamsaka Sutra which advocates money lending and the use of the accrued interest for social and religious purposes. In China and Japan, temples served as moneylenders and often used the interest to build annexes and new temples. Buddhist temples and fraternal associations of the early modern period also operated what we would now call mutual fund banking. Inoue feels that this shows the Buddhist attitude toward money is relatively neutral compared to the Christian view, which tends to denigrate moneylenders and the wealthy. He says, In general, the Buddhist orientation is not to be afraid to make money, but to spend it wisely using our greater wisdom, or Buddha-Mind.6 Inoue approvingly cites the example of Zennojo Tani (1899-1976), whom he describes as, the Buddhist founder of a major restaurant/catering business. Tanis example shows that people should not fear making money because a businessman is like a pipeline for the flow of money. He was a great advocate of Zen as essential to both individuals and businesses, and felt that making money and living a spiritual life can be complementary, not contradictory. He would have agreed with the Buddhist banker, Zenjiro Yasuda of Fuji Bank about the compatibility of business and Buddhism. Zenjiro Yasuda gave five principles for making money which were also his principles for pursuing Buddhist training. 1) Proceed toward your goals slowly, cautiously, and surely. Dont overreach yourself in the beginning.

111 2) Know your weaknesses and correct them. 3) Be sincere in all things. 4) Avoid superficiality and always try to penetrate to the core of things. 5) Do not overspend, and be prepared for unexpected expenses.7 According to Inoue, by using this Buddhist approach, Yasuda became a very wealthy man; a millionaire disciple of the Buddha. Though I do not agree that these ideas are distinctly Buddhist, or that they will turn people into millionaires, they seem reasonable to me. The Buddha himself, in the Sigalaka Sutta recommended the cautious approach to the accumulation of wealth. I consider this sutta important enough that I included it in the appendix at the end of this chapter. In the sutta, he says that a wise and disciplined mans wealth grows slowly like an anthill. The idea that diligent effort is the road to wealth is also central to the Judeo-Christian tradition. Even the parables used are similar. The Buddhas mention of the anthill calls to mind the quote from Proverbs (6:6) Go to the ant, thou sluggard: consider her ways and be wise. Which having no guide, overseer, or ruler, provideth her meat in the summer, and gathereth her food in the harvest. This parable highlights the irony in the fact that some insects have sense enough to work diligently and provide for the future while some human beings do not. The Buddha had specific advice for investing the wealth a person has gained. He should divide his wealth in four parts, using one part to live on, putting two parts to work, and saving one part for times of need. Ornatowski suggests that these values were consistent with the ethics of the rising merchant class of the Buddhas time but not with the economic ethics of Brahmanism, the dominant religion at the time.8

112 Does the Buddhas advice provide any guidance for business today? This is one of the many issues on which mindful inquiry is necessary. Is the Buddha suggesting that we should try to live on only one-quarter of our income? If so, the advice is impossible for all but the wealthy to follow. However, if we reflect carefully on this statement in the context of the entire Sigalaka Sutta, we may find some wisdom in it. If we interpret the statement about putting half of your money to work to mean investing it in a business, he might advise a person today to invest at least 50% of their money in their own business or in stock. If setting aside money as a reserve in times of need means putting it in a very safe investment, the Buddha might have advised people today to keep a minimum of 25% in cash or treasury securities. The remaining 25% a person may enjoy at will. This need not be taken as advice to squander one fourth of ones wealth. It might mean, instead, that this quarter may be used as the individual sees fit. Those with a preference for risk might invest this in equities, for a total of 75% equities and 25% cash. Those with a preference for security might put it in cash, for a total of 50% equities and 50% cash. Considered in this way, the Buddhas advice is consistent with prudent investment behavior. There are several other statements on this topic in a division of the Pali Canon called the Anguttara Nikaya (or the Gradual Sayings). These are divided in a way that seems strange to us but that made perfect sense to the people who lived within an oral tradition and had to memorize the sayings; they are divided into sayings that deal with particular numbers. Thus, the Book of the Threes, contains all the Buddhas statements incorporating the number three. One of these statements is titled, The Two-Eyed. In it, the Buddha says that there are three types of people, the blind, the one-eyed, the two-eyed. A blind person does not have the

113 eye to acquire wealth or to make the wealth he has increase. He does not have the eye to distinguish states that are good and bad, to see states that are blameworthy and praiseworthy, states mean and exalted, states resembling light and darkness. In other words, this person cannot cultivate wealth, and does not bother to cultivate wisdom and virtues like charity. A one-eyed person has the eye to acquire wealth but not the eye to see states that are good and bad; cultivating wealth but not wisdom or virtue. A two-eyed person has both the eye to acquire wealth unattained and the eye to make the wealth he has increase, and the eye to see the importance of spiritual practice. The sutta is summarized by a poem Woodward translates in this way, The blind, of sight bereft, hath no such wealth, Nor works good deeds, unlucky in both ways. And then again tis said the one-eyed man, Conjoined with right and wrong, searches for wealth With tricks and fraud and lies: worldly, purse-proud, And clever to gain wealth is he, and hence Departing is afflicted sore in Hell. But best of alls the being with two eyes: His wealth, with right exertion rightly won, He gives away: with best intent, unwavering, In a blessed home hes born, nor sorrows there. So from the blind and one-eyed keep aloof, And join thyself to the worthy two-eyed man.9

114 The Buddha suggests that if we wish to avoid future suffering, we try to associate with people who are skillful in making money and skillful at giving it away. Such people may be the best mentors for a persons career and spiritual practice. In another section of this text, the Book of the Fours, there are writings expressing similar sentiments. One is entitled, Four Deeds of Merit. It begins when the layman Anathapindika came to visit the Buddha. As he sat at one side, the Buddha told him that there are four things a person should hope for. First, wealth acquired by lawful means. Second, a good reputation for him and his kinsmen and teachers. Third, a long life, and fourth, a favorable rebirth after death. There are four qualities that allow us to achieve these four desirable conditions. They are, perfection of faith, perfection of virtue, perfection of generosity, and perfection of wisdom. The perfection of faith involves faith in the enlightenment of the Buddha, and the possibility of our own enlightenment. The perfection of virtue involves abstaining from killing, from stealing, from wrong speech, and from drinking liquor which causes sloth. The perfection of generosity involves being open-handed and considering the welfare of others first. The perfection of wisdom involves eliminating from your mind the five hindrances; coveting and wrong desire, malice, sloth-and-torpor, distraction-and-flurry, doubt and wavering. Cultivation of these qualities does not guarantee wealth. However, many of those who have cultivated these qualities have acquired wealth also. These themes are echoed in another sutta from the Book of Fours. Here, the Buddha lists four kinds of bliss to be won by the Buddhist layperson; the bliss of ownership, the bliss of wealth, the bliss of debtlessness, and the bliss of blamelessness. 10

115 In a sutta from the Book of the Eights, the Buddha gives four channels through which wealth flows to a person and four channels through which it flows away. Wealth flows to you if you have achieved alertness, wariness, good company, and the even life. Achievement in alertness means that, however a person makes his living, he is deft and tireless in performing his work. He also has an inquiring turn of mind into ways and means, he is always looking for ways to do his work more effectively. Achievement in wariness means that a person takes care of the wealth he acquires. He thinks about the ways he might lose it. In the Buddhas day; a wary man would think, How can I protect this wealth so that rajahs may not get it from me, nor thieves filch it, nor fire consume it, nor water carry it off, nor ill-disposed heirs make off with it? Today, there are other threats to wealth, such as incompetent investment advisers, and the Buddha would advise us to be mindful of these. Good company means that a person spends time with young people reared in virtue, old people grown old in virtue, full of faith, charity and wisdom. He makes an active attempt to imitate these peoples virtuous behavior, until it becomes second nature to him. Achievement of the even life means that, while experiencing both gain and loss in wealth, a person continues his business serenely, not unduly elated or depressed. The Buddha advises us to live below our means, so that even if our income is reduced, our lifestyle will not be affected. There are also four channels through which wealth flows away; promiscuous sex, debauchery and drinking, cheating and playing false with your friends, and friendship with evildoers.11

116 Did the Buddha teach that the wise and disciplined always acquire wealth? In other words, does wisdom always lead to worldly success? I dont think so. A persons past karma determines whether he or she will have the luck to acquire wealth, happiness, and even wisdom. A person can be wise and poor; the Buddha himself was an example. I think the Buddha would have agreed with the writer of the Biblical book of Proverbs (16:16); get wisdom first and it will benefit you whether you acquire wealth or not. Sutta 82 from the Majjhima Nikaya (the Middle-Length Sayings) makes this point forcefully by pointing out the limitations of wealth and the dangers of attachment to it (see Horner, 1989, pp. 265-267).12 He observed that many people who are wealthy seem to be constantly demanding more and more sensual gratification. Kings, for example, can conquer whole continents, reigning over realms that stretch from ocean to ocean, and yet still not be content. Because of this craving, both the rich and the poor die in the midst of want, with their desires unfulfilled. There is no satisfying tanha. The Buddha described the cremation ritual in which relatives let down their hair and grieve, wrap the body in a cloth, set it on the funeral pyre and cremate it, then take sticks and poke the body until it is wholly burnt. He concludes, "When it is time to die, not one thing can you take with you, not even children, wife (or husband), wealth or land. Both the rich and the poor are subject to misfortune, including the final misfortune. But the foolish person, through lack of wisdom, is overwhelmed and stricken by it. The wise person is not. Thus, wisdom is better than wealth, because it leads to the highest goal, contentment.13

117 In summary, this section has described Buddhist guidelines for making and saving money. I mean no disrespect when I say these guidelines are simple common sense. However, following them is far from simple. For example, in the U.S. people rarely live below their means. I regret to admit that I myself have been guilty of every one of the practices the Buddha condemned as channels for the loss of wealth. Buddhist meditation and reflection on the Buddhas teachings may help individuals to do something rare; to live in a way that is consistent with their own common sense. Using Money Wisely: Charity The Buddha, in a sutta called the Four Deeds of Merit, has advice on the four ways a person should use wealth. First, he should make himself, his family, and his friends and comrades cheerful and happy. Second, he should make himself secure against misfortunes. Third, he should make offerings to relatives, to guests, to departed spirits of loved ones, to the rajah, and to the devas (spirits roughly equivalent to elves or fairies). Finally, he should give offerings to monks who are sincere, who abstain from sloth and negligence, who are bent on kindness and forbearance, who tame the self. Again, Woodward has given a translation of the poem summarizing this sutta, I have enjoyed my wealth. Those serving me And those dependent on me have escaped From dangers. I have made the best of gifts Nay, done the oblations five. The virtuous, Composed, who live the good life, Ive supported. That aim the which to win householders wise

118 Should long for wealth, Ive won. Ive done a deed Never to be regretted, pondering thus A mortal man in Aryan dhamma firm Is praised in this world, then in heaven rejoices.14 Many of the Buddha's lay disciples, being wealthy, liberally devoted their wealth to the support of the sangha and to the alleviation of poverty and suffering. For example, the wealthy disciple Anathapindika spent a large amount of money every day to feed hundreds of monks as well as hundreds of the poor.15 Buddhists should give away some of their surplus wealth, but this is only the outward manifestation of charity. To explain the Buddhas concept of charity, I must discuss the Pali word metta, and compare it to the word agape, which is important in the Christian tradition. The word, love is a common English translation of two words from two very different traditions; agape, from the Christian tradition, and metta from the Buddhist tradition. Agape, which is rendered as love in most modern translations of the Bible, can also be translated as charity, goodwill, fellowship, and many other English words. None of these English words captures the sense of the word agape. The word metta is usually translated as loving-kindness, but can also be translated as charity, compassion, and other English words. Both the Greek agape and the Pali metta, however, have very different meanings than any of their English equivalents. This should not be surprising because these words are central to the Christian and Buddhist traditions and have meanings that are bound up with the fundamental concepts of both traditions.

119 In Christian doctrine, agape is a central concept, illustrated by Jehovah sacrificing Himself by becoming a man, who suffered and died the death of a criminal. The idea that we can express the same love for our fellow man as God expresses for us was radical and almost impossible to comprehend when it was expressed in the First Century, as it is now, in the Twenty-first Century. To explain what agape means, let me cite a famous passage from the Bible, First Corinthians 13, using the word agape in place of the word charity which is used in the King James Version of the Bible. Here, the word for Gods love of humanity and the word for humans love of each other is the same, agape.16 1 Corinthians 13:1. Though I speak with the tongues of men and of angels and have not agape, I am become as sounding brass, or as a tinkling cymbal. 2. And though I have the gift of prophesy, and understand all mysteries, and all knowledge; and though I have all faith, so that I could remove mountains, and have not agape, I am nothing. 3. And though I bestow all my goods to feed the poor, and though I give my body to be burned, and have not agape, it provideth me nothing. 4. Agape suffereth long, and is kind; agape envieth not; agape vaunteth not itself, is not puffed up. 5. Doth not behave itself unseemly, seeketh not her own, is not easily provoked, thinketh no evil. 6. Rejoiceth not in iniquity, but rejoiceth in the truth: 7. Beareth all things, believeth all things, hopeth all things, endureth all things.

120 8. Agape never faileth. . . . I draw the readers attention to the third verse, which indicates that agape is not simply giving material goods to those in need, but a state of mind. Philanthropists like Bill Gates and George Soros do not demonstrate agape merely by giving away large sums of money. However, those who do have agape will demonstrate it by performing acts of charity as they are able. The word metta in the Pali Canon is usually translated as loving-kindness. In the Visuddhi Magga, a training manual based on the Canon, Buddhists are encouraged to meditate on metta in the following way, May all beings be free from enmity, affliction, and anxiety, and live happily.17 The Mahayana tradition provides the example of a Buddha who sacrificed himself and drained his own blood to feed starving tiger cubs (a story that is still represented in Zen sand and stone gardens with a single large rock, symbolizing the Buddha, surrounded by several smaller stones, symbolizing the starving tiger cubs). Loving-kindness is one of four objects of meditation the Visuddhi Magga calls the four divine abodes. The others are compassion (empathy for the suffering of others), sympathetic joy (empathy for the happiness of others), and equanimity (evenness of mind). Contemplating any of these can allow the mediator to experience states of blissful selflessness. I see similarities between agape and metta but I do not want to claim that these concepts are the same. Since they come from different traditions, there must be fundamental differences between them. While Buddhists cultivate metta toward all living beings, agape traditionally refers to love Christians express for their fellow human beings. In The Four Loves, for example, Christian writer C. S. Lewis draws a distinction between the affection we feel for animals and the love we feel for other human beings. He also points out the problems that arise

121 when people lavish affection on animals that should be reserved for human beings.18 However, some Christians maintain that human beings can have a kind of fellowship with animals that approaches agape. A second difference has to do with the way metta and agape develop. Buddhists are encouraged to cultivate metta in meditation while Christians believe that agape comes through grace and cannot be developed simply through meditation or individual effort. However, Catholics believe that there are things (including prayer, confession, and the Eucharist) we can do to prepare ourselves for grace. Buddhism, like Christianity (and perhaps all religions), insists on the importance of charity. Christianity promises rewards in heaven and Buddhism promises that charity in this life will result in a favorable rebirth. Those who withhold charity are destined for a different fate. According to Buddhists, they may be reborn as demons, animals, or hungry ghosts. According to Christians, they may be destined for Hell. Withholding charity from Buddhist monks is especially criticized in the Pali Canon. One book in the canon deals with individuals who are reborn as petas, a word often translated as hungry ghosts. Many of the individuals reborn as hungry ghosts were guilty of stinginess. The hungry ghost stories in the Pali Canon are part of a tradition of Asian ghost stories that include those collected in books like Ugetsu Monagatari19 and Kwaidan.20 The ghosts described in these stories are different from those in Western ghost stories. Since Buddhists do not believe in immortal souls, Buddhist ghosts are not souls in torment. They are beings who come into existence because of the bad karma of beings in earlier existences. Their life span comes to an end when this negative karma is exhausted.

122 One of the peta stories, entitled The Master Weaver, concerns a weaver who practiced charity toward monks and his wife, who did not.21 He asked a group of monks he met on the road to spend the rainy season with him, and built huts for them on land he owned in the forest. According to the text, the weaver had faith and devotion to Buddhist monks and provided them with all they needed to live. However, his wife had neither faith nor devotion, but was meanspirited and of wrong view. She did not look after the monks with due care, implying not just that she was occasionally late bringing the mid-day meal, but that she withheld even necessities from monks. When the weaver discovered what his wife was doing, he asked her younger sister to look after the monks. He also prevailed upon his fellow weavers to donate cloaks to the monks for the rainy season. When his wife discovered this, she cursed her husband, saying, Whatever food and drink you have given as alms to those recluses who are sons of the Sakya (Buddhist monks), may it in the next world turn into excrement and urine, blood and pus, and may those cloaks become red-hot iron plates22. When the weaver died, he was reborn as a forest deva (devas are magical beings like elves or fairies) of great majesty. When his wife died, however, she was reborn as a hungry ghost, naked and hideous. She was tormented by hunger and thirst and approached her former husband, the deva, for food and clothing. He gave her the choicest heavenly food and drink but when she touched them, they turned into excrement and urine, pus and blood. He also gave her a cloak but when she touched it, it became a red-hot iron plate. Eventually, a wandering monk entered the part of the forest where the deva and peta lived. She asked the monk for food but when she touched it, it turned to excrement. The monk then

123 explained to the deva that his former wife had become a peta because of her former stinginess toward monks. The monk informed them that if the deva gave offerings of food and clothing to him, and dedicated the merit to the peta, she would be able to use them. The deva then gave the monk the finest heavenly food and drink, as well as a pair of cloaks for the Buddha himself. Happily, the peta was now able to consume the food and use the cloaks.23 Though Buddhism stresses charity, it warns the householder against giving so much that his family is impoverished. As in Christianity, Buddhist charity begins in the home. Conclusion For Buddhists, as for Christians, wealth, rightly acquired and used, is a blessing. Therefore, Buddhists have given advice about how to accumulate wealth. Though the Buddha himself provided advice for acquiring wealth, he considered his advice on giving it away equally important. Giving away wealth, however, is only part of charity, which, according to Buddhists, is a state of mind to be cultivated and, according to Christians, is a state of grace. Better Questions If the Buddhas advice on acquiring wealth is simple common sense, how can Buddhist mindfulness practice help a person follow common sense in their lives? How can a person use the Buddhas 2500 year-old advice on managing money in their own financial decisions? How do I express metta and agape through my work; are they different?

124 APPENDIX 3: THE BUDDHAS ADVICE TO LAYPEOPLE NOTE: I have used several different sources in producing my own (rather free-form) translation of the Sigalaka Sutta, the 31st sutta in the Digha Nikaya (or Long Sayings) division of the Sutta Pitaka of the Pali Canon. These sources include, the original Pali text of the sutta, published by the Pali Text Society, and available on the website www.metta.lk/tipitaka/2suttapitaka, as well as several Pali-English dictionaries and several English translations of the sutta, the most useful of which were the translation by Maurice Walsh (1987), and the one by Narada Thera (1985). Finally, A. K. Warders Introduction to Pali (1984) and a workbook by the Vipassana Research Institute provided information on Pali grammar. THE SUTTA This discussion took place when the Buddha was staying at the Squirrels Feeding Place in the Bamboo Grove near Rajagaha (Most of these suttas give a specific location that the authors assume will be familiar to all those who hear the sutta recited. The city of Rajagha was located in North-Eastern India about 50 miles South of the Ganges River in the present-day Indian state of Bihar near the city of Gaya. It was on an important trade route. This description suggests that the location is a large open space in a bamboo grove, a gathering place for people who have spent their day meditating away from other people and from commerce.) At that time, Sigalaka, the householders son, was performing a religious ceremony that involved saluting, with wet clothes and hair, the six directions, North, South, East, West, up to the sky, down to the earth. Warder (1970, p. 181) says that this is a traditional morning ritual of Brahmanism. Like other religious leaders, the Buddha objected to the performance of empty

125 rituals). The Buddha, after having gotten up early to go on his begging round, saw Sigalaka and asked him why he was performing this ceremony. Sigalaka said, Because my parents, whom I loved and respected, told me to do his to honor them. When my father was dying, he asked me to do this. Because I honor and respect my fathers words, I am doing what he asked me to do. The Buddha replied, Your desire to pay homage to your parents is a good desire. However, you should pay homage to your parents in a different way. (The Buddha suggests that a lay disciple should substitute six kinds of human relationship for the six directions). Sigalaka then expressed his respect for the Buddha and promised to listen attentively while he explained the proper way to show respect. The Buddha explained that a person shows respect by abandoning the fourteen evil ways. If he does show proper respect in these ways, things will go well for him in this life and in the next; he would go to a heaven (though, according to Buddhism, this would not be an eternal heaven. It would last only as long as the individuals good karma lasted). The fourteen evil ways include the four vices, the four causes of evil, and the six ways of wasting wealth. The four vices are violations of the four most basic precepts of the Buddha; killing (human beings or animals), stealing, sexual misconduct, and lying. The four causes of evil are greed, hatred, fear, and delusion. They are the basic mental states underlying the defilements. Finally, the six ways of wasting wealth are; using alcohol or drugs, being on the streets at the wrong times, frequently attending fairs or theatrical shows (according to Warder (1970, p. 182) the Buddha is referring to assemblies that occurred in market towns of the time, possibly similar to state and county fairs held today. Monks were forbidden to attend these. However, laymen

126 are merely warned not to make a habit of attending them), gambling, keeping bad company, and idleness. The Buddha elaborated on the six ways of wasting wealth by identifying six problems that result from practicing each of them. 1. Alcoholism and drug abuse is a waste of money, it makes you quarrelsome, it weakens your constitution, ruins your reputation, causes you to behave indecently, and weakens your mind. 2. When you are in the streets at the wrong time, you put yourself in physical danger, you put your family in danger, you put your property at risk, you may be falsely accused of crimes, and you encounter unpleasant people and circumstances. 3. When you spend time at fairs or theatrical shows, you become distracted by them, so that you are always thinking, Where is the dancing, where is the singing, where is the music, where are people reciting, where are the cymbals, where are the drums? 4. There are six dangers associated with gambling; people hate the winner, the loser moans and cries, the gambler wastes his wealth, his word is not taken seriously in a court of law, his friends do not respect him, and he is not considered a good marriage prospect, because a gambler cannot support a family. 5. If you get used to keeping bad company, then any gambler, glutton, alcoholic, cheater, swindler, and bully is your friend. 6. If you get used to idleness, you will always be able to find an excuse for not working; it is too hot or it is too cold, it is too early or it is too late, you are too hungry, or you are too full. If you live this way, you will not perform your duties, you will not get any new wealth, and the wealth you have will be lost.

127 (This section concludes with a poem summarizing the points the Buddha has made so far) There are four kinds of enemies disguised as friends; the moocher, the big talker, the flatterer, and the good-time friend (one who brings ruin). There are four reasons why each of these so-called friends are really enemies. 1. The moocher is an enemy because he does nothing but take, he wants a lot for a little, when he does his duty, it is out of fear, and he looks out only for himself. 2. The big talker is an enemy because he is always calling your attention to favors done in the past, always promising favors in the future, he mouths empty phrases of goodwill, and when you do need help, he says he cannot. 3. The flatterer is an enemy because he encourages you to do stupid things, he discourages you from taking wise action, he praises you to your face, while he belittles you behind your back. 4. The good-time friend is an enemy because he is always there to encourage you when you drink, when you are on the streets at the wrong times, when you go to fairs or theatrical shows, and when you gamble. (A poem summarizes the points made so far) On the other hand, there are four types of true friends; the friend who is ready to help, the constant friend (one who is with you in happiness and sorrow), the friend who gives you wise advice, and the sympathetic friend. There are four reasons why each of these friends is a true friend. 1. The helpful friend looks after you when you are careless, he looks after your belongings when you are careless, he comforts you when you are anxious, and when he does business with you, he always treats you more than fairly.

128 2. The constant friend is a true friend because he opens his heart to you, he guards your secrets, he is by your side in misfortune, and he would even give up his life for you. 3. The friend who gives you wise advice helps you avoid wrongdoing, encourages you in virtuous conduct, instructs you, and helps you achieve a favorable rebirth. 4. The sympathetic friend does not rejoice in your misfortune, but does rejoice in your good luck, he forbids others to speak against you, and he encourages others to praise you. A man should cherish such friends like a mother cherishes her child. (This part of the sutta is stated in verse in the original Pali version of the sutta) A wise and disciplined man shines like a blazing fire. He collects money the way a bee collects honey. His wealth piles up like an anthill and he uses this wealth to help his people. He should divide his wealth into four parts. He should live on one part, invest two parts in his business, and keep one part for a rainy day. Think of the six directions in this way; the East symbolizes parents, the South symbolizes teachers, the West symbolizes wife and children, the North symbolizes friends and companions, downward symbolizes servants and employees, and upward symbolizes ascetics and spiritual teachers (literally, Brahmins). A person should minister to each of these in five ways and they will reciprocate in five ways. 1. A son should minister to his parents by supporting them (as they supported him when he was young), by performing their duties for them, keeping up the family traditions, making himself worthy of his inheritance, and by distributing gifts on their behalf when they are dead. In return, parents should restrain their son from evil, support him in doing good, give him an education, help him find a wife, and give him his inheritance.

129 2. A student should minister to his teachers by rising respectfully to greet them, by waiting on them, by being eager to learn, by serving them, and by mastering their lessons. Teachers, in their turn, should give thorough instructions, make sure their students have learned their lessons, give them a thorough grounding in all the arts and sciences, recommend them to friends, and provide for their safety. 3. A husband should minister to his wife by honoring her, by speaking well of her, by being faithful to her, by giving her her proper authority, and providing her with adornments. In return, the wife should perform her duties well, treat servants kindly, be faithful to her husband, help him to protect their property, and be skillful and diligent. 4. A man should minister to his friends by giving them gifts, by speaking kindly to them, by looking after their welfare, by being impartial, and by being sincere. They should reciprocate by looking after him when he is careless, looking after his belongings when he is careless, comforting him when he is anxious, standing by him in misfortune, and by showing concern for his family. 5. A boss should minister to his employees and servants by giving them work suited to their abilities, by giving them food and wages, by caring for them when they are ill, by giving them special delicacies, and by not overworking them. In return, workers should get up before the boss, go to bed after him, take only what they are given, work hard, and defend their employers good name. 6. A man should minister to ascetics and spiritual teachers by acting, speaking, and thinking kindly toward them, by opening his house to them, and by taking care of their material needs. In return, they will restrain him from evil, encourage him to do good, be compassionate toward him, instruct him in wisdom, and help him to attain heaven in another rebirth.

130 The Buddha concluded with a poem describing the ideal man, who spends his time for others benefit, who is intelligent and compassionate, and who is energetic in taking care of these six groups of people. After this, Sigalaka expressed delight, and said that it was as if the Buddha had pointed out the way to someone who was lost, or as if he had brought a lamp to light the darkness. He became a lay disciple of the Buddha.

131 1. Kaza, S. 2000. Overcoming the grip of consumerism. Buddhist-Christian Studies, 20: 23-42, p.36. 2. Berrigan, D. 1975. The Raft is not the Shore. Boston: Beacon Press. 3. Ibid., pp.91-92. 4. Glassman, B. & Fields, R. 1996. Instructions to the Cook: A Zen Masters Lessons in Living a Life that Matters. New York, NY.: Bell Tower, p.80. 5. Payutto, P. 1992. Buddhist Economics. Geocities.com/Athens/Academy/9280/econ.htm 6. Inoue, S. 1998. Putting Buddhism to Work: A New Approach to Management and Business. Tokyo: Kodansha International, pp. 109-110. 7. Ibid., p. 110. 8. Ornatowski, G. 1996. Continuity and change in the economic ethics of Buddhism: Evidence from the history of Buddhism in India, China, and Japan. Journal of Buddhist Ethics. 9. Woodward, F. (translator) 1979. The Gradual Sayings (Anguttara Nikaya)(Vol. 1), London: Routledge, pp. 111-112. 10. Ibid., Vol. 2, pp. 77-79 11. Hare, E. 1978. The Book of the Gradual Sayings (Vol. 4) London: Routledge & Kegan Paul LTD., pp.187-191 12. Horner, I. 1989. Middle Length Sayings. Oxford: Pali Text Society, pp. 265-267. 13. Payutto, op cit. Ch. 4, p. 6. 14.Woodward, op cit. Pp. 73-77. 15. Payutto, op cit. Ch. 4, pp. 1-2 16. Wilson, B. 1942. The Emphatic Diaglott containing the Original Greek Text of what is Commonly Styled the New Testament. Brooklyn, NY: International Bible Students Association. 17. Nanamoli Bhikku 1957. The Path of Purification (Visuddhi Magga). Kandy, Sri Lanka: Buddhist Publication Society, p. 323. 18. Lewis, C. 1960. The Four Loves. New York: Harcourt. 19. Akinari, U. 1776/1977. Ugetsu Monogatari. Tokyo: Tuttle.

132 20. Hearn, L. 1968. Kwaidan. New York: Dover. 21. Masefield, P. (Ed.) 1980. Peta Stories. London: Pali Text Society. 22. Ibid, p. 47 23. Ibid, p.49

133 CHAPTER 5: THE EFFECTIVE BUSINESS ORGANIZATION The advice on acquiring and managing money in the last chapter is useful to individuals and entrepreneurs operating small businesses. However, as a business grows and becomes more complex, a whole new set of administrative problems develop. The work of administration becomes too much for an individual and is divided, often into administrative functions like marketing, accounting, finance, and general management. The management of complex businesses raises new ethical questions for those who want to do their jobs effectively and remain true to their Buddhist beliefs. In this chapter, I used the Buddhist management books I discussed in Chapter 2 to help me identify the most important of these questions and I have grouped the discussions of these topics according to business functions. The first three of these topics, encouraging competitiveness, planning and decisionmaking, and leadership, deal with the functional area of management. Next, in discussing advertising, I will touch on the functional area of marketing. Finally, I will discuss the functional area of accounting and auditing. Some Good Questions Can a Buddhist, in good conscience, encourage her organization to be more competitive? Do Buddhist insights on impermanence have any implications for planning and decision-making? Is advertising, which stimulates desires, consistent with Buddhism? Does Buddhism have anything at all to do with accounting and auditing? Encouraging Competitiveness In the last chapter, I asked whether any specific businesses are inconsistent with Buddhism. Now I want ask a broader question; is competition in business itself consistent with

134 Buddhism? Nearly all the writers I examined agree that the answer is a qualified yes. Though some suggest that the competitive marketplace is too brutal to be consistent with Buddhism, most feel that competition can be a form of Buddhist training for those who avoid its worst excesses. According to the Japanese executive Shinichi Inoue, Buddhism allows companies to achieve effectiveness by helping employees understand that the ultimate purpose of competition is to benefit consumers. He uses as an example the Japanese detergent manufacturer the Kao Corporation. The president of this company, Yoshiro Maruta, bases his philosophy on Dogen Zenji, the 13th Century founder of the Soto school of Zen. He regards the workplace as a place for spiritual training of employees and feels a company can be as effective as a remote forest monastery in developing wisdom.1 In a business context, Maruta feels that his companys detergents, soaps, and toiletries have become household words only because the company has made significant investments in the quality of its products. According to Inoue, consumers have benefitted directly from these improved products, and the companys investments in research have given Kaos products an edge over others in the market. Maruta says that he has even shared his quality-improvement methods with his competitors because he believes this will benefit the public as a whole. This attitude, that the consumer rather than the manufacturer is the main beneficiary of competition, is what should underlie Buddhist economics. Putting the customer first was also a principle of Matsutaro Shoriki (1885-1969), the founder of Nippon Television Network Corporation and the president of the Yomiuri Shimbun newspaper, who transformed this daily into Japansand the worldslargest. . . . .2

135 Inoue goes on to say that Matsutaro Shoriki was a student of Buddhism since his youth, and that his respect for Buddhist teaching led him to introduce innovations in his newspaper long before his competitors. He was also one of the first business leaders to channel profits into charitable causes. He founded the Butsugan Kyokai (Association of the Buddhas Eyes) to support research on blindness and provide assistance to the blind. Inoue concludes his discussion by saying, These examples show that one can be fiercely competitive and succeed in business while placing the customer first, thus becoming a positive and helpful member in society. Our competitors should be regarded as old buddies in a long chess game. There is no need to make the chess game, or business, less competitive, but at the end of the day all the competition that the players have engaged in should be for the benefit of society.3 Inoues discussion last sentence calls to mind Adam Smiths Invisible Hand, that shapes the outcomes of competition in the market toward socially beneficial ends. These same sentiments are echoed by American writers on this topic. For example, Bernard Glassman, in Instructions to the Cook, says that we have a tendency to view all other people as rivals or competitors. In both business and spiritual matters, we feel if someone else is doing well there will be less for us. In contrast, Glassman says that rivals are often allies in disguise. He suggests we practice learning to identify ourselves with our opponents, and we will find they can provide insights coming from a perspective or point of view different from our own. I have provided an expanded discussion of this concept in a recent book.4

136 He suggests that life is like a feast. You don't have to be afraid that the other guests are going to eat all the food. Instead, we should welcome competitors as guests and try to transform them into allies we can work with and learn from. He himself was very open with information about the Greystone Bakery because he wanted other people to copy Greystone and improve on its procedures if possible. For example, he helped the Trappist monks of Snowmass start their own line of cookies and published The Greystone Bakery Cookbook, with all the recipes for their baked goods. Glassman argues that another problem with competition is that it breeds secrecy, and secrecy creates both an unhealthy state of mind--paranoia--and an unhealthy industry of corporate spies. If you use spies, you always have to worry about double agents who spy both ways, and that weakens your internal organization. But if everything is out in the open, if you have no secrets to steal, then you can concentrate on sharing information and creating cooperation within your company. Instead of sowing the seeds of suspicion, you will plant the seeds of harmony and strength.5 Both Japanese and Americans seem to agree that competition is not necessarily inconsistent with Buddhism. However, sincere Buddhists must avoid the worst excesses of competitive behavior. They should regard competitors as fellow participants in a game; meaning that they should avoid paranoia and underhanded dealing, and should keep service to customers always uppermost in mind. Zen Buddhists have a saying, with the ideal comes the actual. What I have just written represents the ideal of competition as an aid to spiritual practice. It is time to deal with the actual facts of competition. Individuals and businesses involved in intense and unregulated competition

137 may find it impossible to survive while dealing honorably with competitors and customers. Regulation of markets may be necessary to enable people to compete without violating their Buddhist principles. What specific regulations are needed to make it possible for businesses to engage in healthy and productive competition? Some have argued that Japanese capitalism, which is more heavily regulated, allows people to behave in ways more consistent with Buddhism than does American capitalism. I will discuss this question more in a later chapter. Planning and Decision-Making Dogen Zenji, in his Instructions to the Chief Cook, says that we should plan for the future mindfully; not as a way of anticipating the future but as a way of examining our assumptions about desirable futures and the forces that will shape them. We must plan for the future but we must recognize that we only exist at this moment, and that planning is something we do for our selves of the future; it is an act of charity. Buddhist meditation can help managers plan more effectively and make more creative as well as more ethical decisions. Albert Low argued this point strongly and felt it was important enough to name his book Zen and Creative Management. Low and others describe the ways meditation calms the mind and facilitates creative association. They claim that Buddhist views on impermanence and no-self help us avoid getting too caught up in our plans. Effective planning involves both rationality and intuition. This is not a radical new insight from Buddhism but a fact well understood by those who study, teach, and engage in strategic planning. This was a topic in which I specialized in my own academic career, publishing in journals like Long Range Planning and the Strategic Management Journal which deal with ways

138 to improve competitive decision-making. While intuition is not a substitute for careful, systematic analysis based on detailed reviews of data, rationality and data-driven analysis cannot dominate the decision process. One potentially dangerous belief is that intuition is infallible. Some Buddhists overestimate the reliability of intuitions, especially if those intuitions are the product of meditation or mindfulness exercises. Similarly, some successful executives become overconfident in their intuitive judgments and believe that they cannot be wrong, with predictable disastrous results. Management researcher Danny Miller provides detailed discussions and examples of the effects of this overconfidence in business in his book The Icarus Paradox.6 It is easy to understand how people become seduced into the belief that their intuition is infallible. Intuitive insights into problems often carry with them the feeling of certainty. However, both Buddhists and business executives must mindfully examine the results of their intuitions and admit to themselves that they are often wrong. This can create the intellectual humility that makes the best managers eager to use data to help them evaluate their own intuitions. Buddhism and many other religions recommend meditation and internal stillness as a way of helping individuals discern the right course of action in business and life decisions. What does internal stillness mean, what effect should it have on decision making, and how can we cultivate it? Payutto says that, through meditation and mindfulness practice in daily life, we come to witness the stream of causes and conditions that begin as mental conditions and lead to economic activity. Meditation helps us to see how ethical and unethical behavior are the natural consequence of the mental conditions which motivate them. Individual people, classes, races and

139 nationalities are neither intrinsically good nor evil. It is rather our mental qualities that guide our behavior toward the ethical and the unethical. Greed, hatred and delusion (tanha) drive us to unethical acts. Wisdom (chanda) guides us to ethical behavior and a virtuous life. Meditation helps us gain perspective on our motivations, sharpen our awareness and strengthen our will. Then, when we make decision about our livelihood and consumption, we can better resist compulsions driven by fear, craving, and pride and choose instead a moral course that aims at true well-being. The development of this kind of mental discernment leads to true economic and human development.7 My own experience with meditation and decision-making supports what Payutto has said, though I know of no research on the effects of Buddhist meditation on economic decision-making. Buddhism suggests ways to improve decision-making by individuals and also decisionmaking by groups and organizations. The Mahaparinibbana Sutta in the Digha Nikaya (the Long Discourses) of the Pali Canon covers the time before, during, and immediately after the Buddhas death. In it, he said: Monks, I will teach you seven things that are conducive to welfare. . . 1) As long as the monks hold regular and frequent assemblies, they may be expected to prosper and not decline. 2) As long as they meet in harmony, break up in harmony, and carry on their business in harmony, they may be expected to prosper and not decline. 3)As long as they do not authorize what has not been authorized, but proceed according to what has been authorized by the rules of training, they will prosper.

140 4) As long as they honor, respect, revere, and salute the elders of long standing who are long ordained, fathers and leaders of the order, they will prosper. 5) As long as they do not fall prey to desires which arise in them and lead to rebirth, they will prosper. 6) As long as they are devoted to forest lodgings, they will prosper. 7) As long as they persevere in their personal mindfulness, so that in future the good among their companions will come to them, and those who have already come will feel at ease with them, they will prosper.8 In this sutta, the Buddha argued that similar rules made communities or kingdoms strong and advised a king not to attack a particular kingdom whose citizens were famous for following these rules. Some of these rules have obvious applications to decision-making in all organizations while others do not. This again illustrates the point I made in the first chapter of this book. We must carefully and critically examine statements made by the Buddha (and by other Buddhists) and use our own, admittedly fallible, judgment to determine whether they apply to a particular business or business decision. In the Buddhas order, local groups of monks made decisions by consensus, and these rules are intended to promote consensus decision-making. Consensus, however, can mean a variety of things. One thing consensus might mean is that self-interested individuals with different objectives compromise so that each may achieve part of what he wants. This is not the sort of consensus the Buddha had in mind.

141 Another sort of consensus occurs when individuals attempting to solve a common problem communicate with each other, share information, and develop and evaluate solutions together to reach agreement. This is the sort of consensus Buddhist monks attempted to achieve. According to Warder the sangha or community at the time of the Buddha consisted of a number of small groups in different localities. If a group consisted of twenty or more monks, it had some degree of autonomy, and could make decisions on its own. To be legally valid, any action taken by a community had to be approved in a meeting. All members had to be present at these meetings except in exceptional circumstances, such as illness, when an opinion or vote could be conveyed by proxy. Resolutions of these meetings which had to be approved unanimously to be valid. Those supporting a resolution made every effort, by argument, compromise and conciliation of dissident opinions, to attain this unanimity.9 In meetings, any monk or novice was allowed to express his opinion. Ideally, issues were discussed until there were no further objections. In some cases, meetings broke up repeatedly without consensus being reached.10 Similar procedures have been followed and are followed today by some Quaker congregations when making important decisions. Chakravarti argues that the Buddha modeled the Sangha (the order of the monks) on the ganasangha. The ganasangha were a group of political, territorial clans that existed in northern India around the time of the Buddha. In these clans, members exercised a collective power, held all assets as common property, and engaged in democratic collective decision-making. However, these democratic decision processes did not extend to the dasa karmakaras, the servile laborers, who had no access to political power.11

142 There were no dasa karmakaras in the Buddhist Sangha. With that exception, decisions were made in a similarly democratic way. Traditional social classes or castes were not recognized bin the sangha and decision-making was based on the metaphor of people from the four different castes (or social classes) coming together like four streams merging. Decisions were reached through consensus when possible. However, if all points of view could not be accommodated, then the majority opinion was followed.12 In the society outside the Sangha, decision-making was dominated by the kings and the ganapathis, who owned property and never worked for others. Decision-making structures were strictly hierarchical, and included little consultation with those in the lower castes. Women originally had a very small role the Buddha's vision of organization and social rights.13 However, the Vinaya Pitaka, the section of the Pali Canon containing the rules for monastic life, shows that the Buddha was willing to change his mind when confronted by reasonable arguments from those who held different views. A number of women presented him with reasonable arguments to suggest that he should allow women to become disciples or nuns. They suggested that, since all beings, including women, have the Buddha nature, all should be allowed to become disciples, with all the duties and rights of other disciples, and the Buddha agreed with them. Communal, non-hierarchical decision-making was part of religious training in the Sangha and the Buddha also felt that individuals could train more effectively in social organizations that made decisions this way. Zadek claims the Sarvodaya Shramadana movement in Sri Lanka illustrates the Buddhas approach to decision-making applied to worldly matters. Sarvodaya is a community organization working to improve the situation of people in rural areas throughout Sri

143 Lanka.14 It has also been active in attempting to resolve conflicts between Sinhalese Buddhists and Tamil Hindus. Since Sarvodaya's approach is influenced by both Gandhian and Buddhist principles, so it is not a pure example of Buddhist social organization.15 However, I believe this movement illustrates some principles used by the sangha. Sarvodaya is based on the view that social change is rooted in spiritual transformations, and so its members work on promoting compassion and wisdom in people's social relationships, and also in their relationships to themselves and nature.16 To promote village-level consultation and mobilization, Sarvodaya has evolved a process of participative decision-making.17 The process involves meetings of the entire village in family gatherings, and the formation of groups within the village (women, youths, elders, etc), who are then encouraged to articulate their own needs and develop goals and plans that can be achieved with some technical, organizational or material help from Sarvodaya. Efforts are made to create more open and equal dialogue between the members of the community, and sometimes outsiders, to support a process of growing self-awareness and spiritual development. Despite its objective of encouraging participative decision-making, Sarvodaya has few formal mechanisms for ensuring participation or formal review of leaders decisions. The organization has a hierarchic decision-making structure that enforces the rights of managers at the center to make decisions, without ensuring formalized feedback processes, let alone any formal rights of Sarvodaya workers to participate in the process of formulating decisions. However, leaders are expected to make decisions with the well-being of people at lower levels in mind.

144 Thus, it would seem that modern movements like Sarvodaya may fall prey to the social hierarchies and status differences in the society surrounding them. Early Buddhism reduced the chances of this happening by having rules about how to encourage participation in decisionmaking. Without such rules, it is easy for the greed and delusions of those in power in a society to infect movements attempting to ameliorate social ills. Modern management scholars and the Buddha would agree that if you want to ensure consensus decision-making, you must develop clear (though flexible) rules about how it is to be achieved. Leadership In discussing Buddhism and leadership, I want to focus on two issues, the manipulation of others and the leaders own commitment. How can Buddhists working in business lead others without manipulating them? How can we avoid becoming over-identified with and excessively committed to our leadership roles? Leadership is one of the central topics in the study and teaching of management. Many management scholars have developed rules for effective leadership. They have also reported on vivid examples of leadership gone wrong. I myself reported on two high-profile executives, Lee Iacocca and John DeLorean, in the auto industry in the 1970s and 1980s who followed a pattern that has become familiar in the early years of the 21st Century .18 Like the executives of Enron and Global Crossing these corporate superstars had a vision that was persuasive and exciting to all those who heard it. They were initially lionized by investors, employees, and boards of directors. They were given great latitude to operate as they saw fit. Eventually, they began to engage in questionable behavior in the service of their vision and, in some cases, resorted to illegal activity to preserve it.

145 Does Buddhist training prevent this sort of questionable leadership? Sadly, the answer is no. The same pattern of leadership failure can be seen in four recent examples of questionable leadership in American Buddhist training centers. The first of these involves Richard Baker, formerly at Zen Center in San Francisco, and is a clear case of leadership gone wrong.19 The second involves Tibetan Buddhist Chogyam Trungpa, founder of the Vajradhatu community and his successor, Osel Tendzin. The third involves Bernard Glassman, founder of the Greystone Mandala, whose leadership produced many positive results but has been criticized by some of those who worked with him, including Shainberg in his book Ambivalent Zen.20 Richard Baker was the leader of the Zen Center in San Francisco from the death of its founder, Suzuki Roshi, in 1971, until he was removed by the board of directors in 1983. In order to raise money to service the debts incurred through expansion of the center and the acquisition of property in San Francisco and the surrounding area, Baker became deeply involved in fundraising. To support his fund-raising efforts, he began spending large sums of money on entertainment and maintaining a lavish lifestyle, including expensive automobiles and several residences. He also had a series of increasingly public sexual relationships, including one with the wife of one of the centers biggest contributors, who threatened legal action unless something was done about Bakers philandering. In response, those who had the power to remove Baker did so.21 Chogyam Trungpa, author of Cutting through Spiritual Materialism, was one of the most visible Tibetan Buddhists in America. He founded of the Vajradhatu community which reputedly encouraged sexual activity among members as a part of their training. His successor, Osel Tendzin, was diagnosed with AIDS and knowingly continued to practice unprotected sex with

146 members of the community, one of whom subsequently died of the disease. Once this was revealed, the community went through a period of turmoil that began to improve when Chogyam Trungpas son was appointed as its new leader.22 The case of Bernard Glassman, founder of the Greystone Manadala, was more ambiguous than those of Rick Baker and Osel Tendzin.23 After training for several years on the West Coast, Glassman moved to New York and borrowed money to purchase properties for a training center and the Greystone Bakery. The bakery was financially successful, but some students raised questions about whether Buddhist training was sacrificed for business success. Shainberg, for example, reports on an occasion in which he asked for spiritual guidance from Glassman and Glassman responded by asking him for money to finance the purchase of a property.24 There were, however, no public scandals at Greystone. Another scandal emerged in the early 1980's at the Zen Center of Los Angeles which was the subject of a documentary film. Maezumi Roshi, the centers founder and the teacher of many prominent American roshis, had an alcohol problem which he said was partially to blame for the fact that he had had ongoing affairs with several female students, including one of his Dharma heirs who was married. In 1983, he checked into an alcohol treatment program at the Betty Ford Clinic, which precipitated a crisis at the center. The documentary film, Zen Center: A Portrait of an American Zen Community made in 1984, explored members reactions to Maezumis behavior and made the point that Zen training does not make immune from human weakness or from feelings of betrayal. Baker, Tendzin, Glassman and Maezumi were charismatic leaders who received authorization to teach from well-respected teachers. This was one reason their students trusted

147 them and assumed they could pursue financial and spiritual objectives simultaneously. However, it might have been better if students had questioned their leadership more strongly. Bell points out that scandals and abuse of power are likely to occur when an organization is dominated by a charismatic leader and an inner circle that she calls a charismatic aristocracy, unquestioned by other members.25 The same can be said for leadership in business organizations like Enron and Global Crossing. To some extent, when leaders go wrong, the fault lies with their followers. The cases of Richard Baker, Osel Tendzin, and, to a lesser extent, Bernard Glassman, illustrate the difficulties faced by leaders of organizations; whether they are business organizations or Buddhist organizations. Similar difficulties were also faced by the Buddha. The Mahaparinibbana Sutta, which describes the last days of the Buddha states that, on his deathbed, the Buddha was asked to name a successor and make a statement about the sangha, the order of monks, and the way it should be governed after he died. According to the Pali Canon, this is what he said, If there is anyone who thinks: I shall take care of the sangha, or the sangha should refer to me, let him make some statement about the sangha, but the Tathagata (the Buddha) does not think in such terms. So why should the Tathagata make a statement about the sangha? Therefore, Ananda, you should live as islands unto yourselves, being your own refuge, with no one else as your refuge, with the Dhamma as an island, with the Dhamma as your refuge, with no other refuge.26 The Buddhas statement showed that he refused to become overly identified with his leadership role. Naturally, organizations need leadership, and the Buddha would not tell leaders

148 to abdicate their responsibility. However, his statement warns leaders against focusing too much on themselves and giving themselves too much credit for good outcomes. It is important for leaders to recognize the importance of factors beyond their control and the individual initiative of subordinates. It also warns followers and subordinates to remember that they cannot escape responsibility for their own behavior by blaming their leaders. Research using letters to shareholders and speeches to industry analysts shows that executives tend to take credit for good outcomes. However, those who share credit for success with others may actually be more successful in the long run27. Those who go further and delegate responsibility and authority for decisions to self-managing teams may thereby tap the creative potential of those who help them in implementing their strategies. I will explore this topic in greater detail in Chapter 7, which deals with Buddhism in the organizations of the future. The Buddhas views on leadership succession in the sangha raise the question of whether he really had any advice to give those who want to manage others. He had a great deal to say about work to individuals who wanted to work mindfully. However, his emphasis on self-reliance suggests that he may have seen issues of leadership and the management of others as secondary to his mission. There are also moral issues raised by the practice of management as it is defined in our society today. At its best, management involves persuading and encouraging others to work cooperatively to achieve ends that will be beneficial to all. At its worst, management involves manipulating, misleading, and sometimes forcing others to make sacrifices of time and other personal resources that benefit the organization but not the individuals making the sacrifices.

149 Manipulative management is inconsistent with the spirit of both Buddhist and Christian ethics. In Chapter 1, I discussed the 8-Fold Path and the Ten Precepts. If manipulation of others involves lying or distorting the truth, it violates the third step of the Path (right speech) and the third Precept (not engaging in harmful speech). Earlier, I described the process leading to clinging and conception. As we move mindlessly from feeling to craving to clinging to conception, our self-schemas are re-created. As we incorporate things or ideas into our self-schemas, we cling to them and make decisions about them in biased ways. This represents the cognitive side of clinging, and has been called loss aversion, the status quo bias and the endowment effect by researchers. Manipulative management encourages us to cling to ideas that serve the interests of the leader and to narrow and impoverish our self-schemas. A manipulative leader can encourage us to identify with and cling to his ideas, plans, or vision by encouraging certain types of biases I have discussed elsewhere. These include overconfidence, the illusion of control, and escalating commitment.28 If I want to get a people to identify with my vision, I can first try to build confidence in myself by providing vivid anecdotal information about myself that encourages overconfidence when evaluating whether to buy into or invest themselves in my vision of the future of my organization, social group, or ideology. When people are making the decision to commit themselves, they must decide whether they have confidence in my ability, as leader, to understand how we should act collectively and to communicate my understanding (or vision) effectively. They may make this decision by evaluating my intelligence, charisma, and other leadership

150 qualities. By flooding them with vivid positive information on himself, the manipulative leader increases the chance that they will become overconfident in him. Some people feel that they will not fall prey to this obvious manipulation tactic; as long as they are aware that the leader is trying to manipulate them, they will not become overconfident. However, a growing body of research shows that people do become overconfident in their own abilities and decisions because they use information in a biased way. This can happen even when they are fully aware of the existence of this bias.29 This is especially true when the tasks or decisions they face are difficult and they have to deal with a lot of information. Manipulative leaders can also encourage a related bias, the illusion of control, which is the tendency to overestimate how much control we have over outcomes in our lives. Leaders can encourage the same kind of illusion in their own control over the realization of their vision. Finally, they can use information to increase commitment over time by encouraging others to interpret setbacks in ways that do not challenge the vision. For example, if sales are declining despite the leaders plan that they will increase, she can give out information that encourages others to interpret sales declines as temporary problems that will be corrected as the economy improves or as our customers finally realize they should be purchasing our product or ideology. Christianity teaches that manipulation of others is wrong because it violates a basic principle summed up in the phrase, Do unto others as you would have them do unto you. Kant provided a concise statement of this spirit in his categorical imperative; individuals should always be treated as ends in themselves, not merely as means to other ends. He said that lying and manipulation are harmful because they violate our nature as human beings, even if people see behind our lies and resist our attempts at manipulation.

151 Buddhists also focus on the harm done by the intent to manipulate or harm others. This is illustrated in a debate between the Buddha and Mahavira, founder of the Jains, a religion that began in India at about the same time as Buddhism. Both Buddhists and Jains attempt to avoid killing but the Buddhists put relatively more emphasis on the mental state that lies behind killing while the Jains put relatively more emphasis on the physical act of killing. The Pali Canon describes a discussion between the Buddha and a Mahavira, who is called Nattaputa in the Pali Canon.30 Both the Buddhists and the Jains agreed that evil can come from three sources; physical action, speech, and thought. The Buddha asked Mahavira which was the worst and he replied that physical action was the worst. Physical action is what leads to suffering.31 The Buddha asked Mahavira to repeat this point three times. He then replied that he and his followers focused instead on mental actions, and considered these the most important. It is the state of mind behind physical actions that ultimately produces suffering and leads to unfortunate rebirths in the future. The Buddha was asked to repeat this point three times and he did so.32 This difference is reflected in the current practice of both Buddhists and Jains. For example, both Buddhists and Jains embrace ahimsa or non-killing, as a central tenet of their faith. However, Jains take great pains to avoid killing insects, sometimes wearing gauze over their mouths to ensure that they will not accidentally inhale flies. Buddhists are not required to take such precautions because accidental killing is considered very different from intentional killing. Buddhists attempt to avoid even the thought of killing or harming other living creatures.

152 It is important not to make too much of the difference between these two philosophies but to remember that manipulation of others involves harmful thoughts, words, and deeds. I believe all religions condemn the act of manipulation. Kant, the Buddha, Christ, and Mahavera would all have agreed that manipulative management is ethically wrong even if it fails to influence others and if it does influence others, it is even more ethically objectionable. However, it is possible to lead others without manipulating them, as the Buddhas own life shows. Marketing and Advertising One aspect of modern capitalism is particularly troubling to many Buddhists, the stimulation of consumption through advertising. In Chapter 3, I drew the distinction between tanha and chanda, bad and good desire. Buddhists worry that advertising appeals only to tanha. Neither the Buddha nor any of the great Buddhist teachers who lived before the 20th Century made any statements about advertising for the obvious reason that it did not yet exist. Buddhists living in the 21st Century must form their own views based on an understanding of the history and methods of advertising. For most of the Industrial Revolution, companies focused on increasing production and providing the maximum number of goods at the cheapest price. Henry Ford exemplified this orientation, making every effort to cut costs and increase production of his Model Ts, and shunning advertising. However, beginning in the early decades of the 20th Century, American and European firms found that they were able to produce more than consumers needed, and began to shift to a marketing orientation, attempting to stimulate more demand through advertising, as described by Galbraith, in The Affluent Society, published in 1958. General Motors exemplified this orientation, which was one reason it was able to increase its market share at the expense of

153 Ford in the 1920s. Nearly every company followed General Motors lead, and advertising is now inescapable in American society. Developing effective advertising is now a subject of academic study. Some of the top journals in the marketing field, including the Journal of Marketing, and the Journal of Marketing Research devote space in nearly every issue to this topic. Advertising has become much more sophisticated over the past eight decades and most people feel that it has become more effective, though the effectiveness of advertising is notoriously difficult to demonstrate through quantitative research.33 Advertising is used to encourage people to purchase products, services, and ideologies. The best marketing strategies involve detailed research and careful assessment of consumer sentiments, preferences, prejudices, biases, hopes, dreams and fears followed by the development of advertisements designed to attract their attention and suggest that certain products or ideas will satisfy them. Such advertising is problematic but is it unethical? There are two perspectives that provide two different answers to this question. I take both of these perspectives seriously and I will try to briefly summarize them before giving my own views. First, I will cover the case against advertising. Critics argue that advertising encourages people to identify with products by stimulating harmful craving and clinging. Waid describes how advertisers attempt to undermine consumers reasoned judgments by associating products with deep-seated human desires, dreams, and fears.34 Not all advertising uses this type of association but the advertising that does is manipulative and dishonest. The needs such advertising appeals to, such as the desire for friendship or self-respect, are not things that can be bought and sold in the marketplace. Further, many advertised products cannot provide the benefits implied in the

154 ads. For example, cigarettes cannot give smokers the excitement and glamor implied in cigarette advertising. Critics believe that advertising encourages individuals to focus on their lowest desires (tanha), and waste their efforts attempting to satisfy desires that merely increase after temporarily being sated. Over time, this can lead to a feeling of impoverishment. This impoverishment is dealt with symbolically in stories of prodigal sons, which can be found in both Christianity and Buddhism. I discuss these parables more thoroughly in Chapter 7 and I have included them in Appendix 5. Schumacher, in Small is Beautiful, decries the stimulation of artificial wants and consumption in capitalist societies, particularly as it relates to the consumption of non-renewable natural resources. Just as a modern European economist would not consider it a great economic achievement if all European art treasures were sold to America at attractive prices, so the Buddhist economist would insist that a population basing its economic life on non-renewable fuels is living parasitically, on capital instead of income. Such a way of life could have no permanence and could therefore be justified only as a purely temporary expedient. As the worlds resources of nonrenewable fuelscoal, oil, and natural gasare exceedingly unevenly distributed over the globe and undoubtedly limited in quantity, it is clear that their exploitation at an ever-increasing rate is an act against nature that must inevitably lead to violence between men.35

155 Many Buddhist writers have followed Schumachers lead. For example, Payutto states that consumers in Western societies have vain and fickle values and prefer flashy and ostentatious products to high quality products. In a more practically-minded society, consumers would choose goods on the basis of their reliability, which would lead to better long-term consequences for society. Payutto says that advertising stimulates economic activity, but often at an ethically unacceptable price. Most ads attempt to turn us into perfect consumers who have no higher purpose in life than to consume the products of modern industry. In the process, we aransformed into hungry ghosts, (a Buddhist term for spirits of the departed who are still driven by greed that can never be satisfied) striving to feed an everlasting craving, and society becomes a seething mass of conflicting interests. Moreover, he says that advertising adds to the price of the product itself. Thus people tend to buy unnecessary things at prices that are too high. Things are used for a short while and then replaced, even though they are still in good condition. Advertising also caters to peoples' tendency to flaunt their possessions as a way of gaining social status. When snob-appeal is the main criterion, people buy unnecessarily expensive products without evaluating their quality. In extreme cases, people are so driven by the need to appear stylish that they cannot wait to save the money for the latest gadget or fashion -- they simply use their credit cards (Payuttos concerns about the use of credit cards may strike some Americans as extreme. However, when we reflect on the fact that personal bankruptcies are now near record levels in America, and that excessive credit card debt is one of the things that drives people into bankruptcy, his views may seem more reasonable).

156 Spending in excess of earnings can become a vicious cycle. A newer model or fashion is advertised and people plunge themselves deeper and deeper into debt trying to keep up. In this way, unethical advertising can lead people to financial ruin.36 Proponents of Engaged Buddhism echo Payuttos point. Jones, for example, raises concerns about the tendency in capitalism to encourage the multiplication of wants.37 Advertising is one means for multiplying wants that Jones mentions specifically. Those who hold this perspective point to evidence that people are too caught up in consumption. For example, rising levels of consumer debt and increasing numbers of bankruptcies suggest that many people are becoming over-committed to the lifestyle of consumption. This, in turn, forces them to work harder and devote more of their lives to the cycle of getting and spending. Economists like Juliet Schor, author of The Overworked Americans.38 worry that most Americans are working harder than ever in their race for an escalating definition of the good life. Though it is not certain that people are working more hours, surveys suggest that many feel increasingly pressed for time. There has been a clear correlation between spending on advertising and overall levels of consumption in Western countries over the past century. Critics often suggest that advertising has caused us to become increasingly eager to quickly satisfy our every whim and, in the process, increasingly burdened with useless possessions and consumer debt. Some economists argue that advertising distorts markets and weakens competition. By differentiating products and creating brand loyalty, advertising creates barriers to entry; in other words, it makes it harder for new firms to enter the market, thus reducing consumer choice.

157 Manipulative advertising is not only a problem in itself, but also a part of a larger problem in our culture. This problem is reflected in business by the practice of manipulating others, including all those involved with companies, including employees, suppliers, investors, and customers. Peter Trachtenberg argues that advertising is part of a pervasive culture of desire in this country. I find his statements poetic though not persuasive, and I think the following quotes make his point, In America, Buddhism has encountered a republic of desire, a place where appetite and ambition are so pervasive that transcending them seems impossible. This is a country that includes the pursuit of happiness among its citizens basic rights and goes on to treat this pursuit as a sort of sweaty moral decathlon: As a summation of our national ethic, In God we trust is a lot less descriptive than Have it your way. Thus, just when Buddhism is becoming part of the American mainstream, America is embracing a civic cult of desire whose fundamental assumptions seem radically opposed to Buddhist dharma.39 To make a profit most companies have to sell their products to millions of consumers, who may or may not actually need what these companies have to offer. Absent real need, businesses must stoke the furnace of desire by advertising, promoting, by planting associations between the products themselves and the things people have always really wanted, like security, beauty, sex, and power. It seems likely that as long as America remains a capitalist economy, the industries of

158 desire will flourish and American Buddhists will have to formulate a stance toward them.40 Sivaraksa calls consumerism promoted by advertising a demonic religion which leads to dissatisfaction as well as environmental destruction.41 Echoing this point, Kaza describes consumerism as an ideology based on grasping and clinging.42 Some who hold this view would ban all advertising. Like them, I am concerned (not to mention irritated) by much of the advertising I am forced to endure as I drive my car, watch television, read newspapers or magazines, explore the Internet, listen to the radio, and even walk down a street. However, I have tentatively concluded that advertising is not bad in itself. Next, I want to discuss the case for advertising. Defenders of advertising say that it gives people information about products and that it does not force people to buy anything. If we make foolish purchases, it is up to us to learn from our mistakes; Caveat Emptor. This argument has a long history, and can be found in the writings of Americas founding fathers. Benjamin Franklin, one of the intellectual fathers of Americanstyle capitalism, elevates thrift to a general principle that should guide a person through life. Franklin summarizes his views with a letter he wrote to a woman he knew in France. FRANKLIN'S LETTER When I was a child of seven years old, my friends, on a holiday, filled my pocket with coppers. I went directly to a shop where they sold toys for children; and, being charmed with the sound of a whistle, that I met by the way in the hands of another boy, I voluntarily offered and gave all my money for one. I then came home, and went whistling all over the house, much pleased with my whistle, but

159 disturbing all the family. My brothers, and sisters, and cousins, understanding the bargain I had made, told me I had given four times as much for it as it was worth; put me in mind of what good things I might have bought with the rest of the money; and laughed at me so much for my folly, that I cried with vexation; and the reflection gave me more chagrin than the whistle gave me pleasure. This however was afterwards of use to me, the impression continuing on my mind; so that often, when I was tempted to buy some unnecessary thing, I said to myself, Don't give too much for the whistle; and I saved my money. As I grew up, came into the world, and observed the actions of men, I thought I met with many, very many, who gave too much for the whistle. When I saw one too ambitious of court favor, sacrificing his time in attendance on court receptions, his repose, his liberty, his virtue, and perhaps his friends, to attain it, I said to myself, this man gives too much for the whistle. When I saw another fond of popularity, constantly employing himself in political bustles, neglecting his own affairs, and ruining them by that neglect, He pays, indeed, said I too much for his whistle. If I knew a miser, who gave up every kind of comfortable living, all the pleasure of doing good for others, all the esteem of his fellow-citizens, and the joys of benevolent friendship, for the sake of accumulating wealth, Poor man, said I, you pay too much for your whistle. When I met with a man of pleasure, sacrificing every laudable improvement of the mind, or of his fortune, to mere corporeal sensations, and

160 ruining his health in their pursuit, Mistaken man, said I, you are providing pain for yourself, instead of pleasure; you give too much for your whistle. In short, I conceive that a great part of the miseries of mankind are brought upon them by the false estimates they have made of the value of things, and by their giving too much for their whistles.43 Franklin expresses a commonsense attitude that many people see as the essence of real capitalism. Individuals must learn to exercise thrift and moderation. Elsewhere, in The Way to Wealth, he says, The borrower is a slave to the lender, and the debtor to the creditor. Disdain the chain, preserve your freedom and maintain your independency. Be industrious and free. Be frugal and free. Tis easier to suppress the first desire than to satisfy all that follow it.44 According to those who share Franklins view, advertising is not to blame for over consumption; our own lack of mindfulness and discipline is. Defenders of advertising argue that it does no real harm to individuals or society. Stimulating consumption can be a good thing because it leads to economic development, the adoption of new technologies, and improved material circumstances for consumers. Advertisements use emotional appeals to draw consumers attention to their messages but not to seduce them into making a purchase they would not otherwise make. Even if advertising is intentionally manipulative, some argue that it does not work, that decades of research on this topic has failed to demonstrate a clear effect of advertising on overall levels of consumption. Sutherland, for example, admits that advertising attempts to get people to identify with products but says that persuasion is the exception rather than the rule.45 In other

161 words, if we are overspending and behaving greedily, advertising bears only a small part of the blame. I found the book Ethics and Manipulation in Advertising to be a clear and thoughtful discussion of the implications of the research.46 According to this view, advertising is more of a symptom of consumption (or over consumption) than a cause. At first, this statement seems counterintuitive. If advertising has little effect, why do executives continue to spend money on it and why does it seem to increase our tendency to consume? What accounts for the strong association between advertising and consumption? As I said earlier, both advertising and consumption have increased dramatically in most Western countries during the last century. Advertising is an extremely vivid phenomenon; it is designed to be. Therefore, when we are searching for reasons why consumption has increased, it is easy to blame advertising. As consumption has increased in our society, companies sales and profits have increased, and they have invested these profits in increasing advertising budgets. Business leaders use advertising not because they are sure it works but because they are afraid if they do not advertise, they may lose sales. No manager wants to have to explain to his superiors why he chose to reduce advertising budgets if it appears that the reduction lead to a sales decline. In other words, advertising is largely defensive. There is a tendency for executives to allocate a roughly equal proportion of profits to advertising every year so that advertising expenditures tend to rise as sales and profits rise. Thus, the relationship between advertising and consumption might be explained by the fact that consumption influences future advertising, rather than the reverse.

162 Consumption, in itself, is not a bad thing. In the Pali Canon, the Buddha did not condemn householders who spent money for luxuries. In fact, he explicitly condemned miserliness and suggested that one of the benefits of the householders life is that householders can make money and spend it for pleasure as well as charity. The Buddha told the following story to illustrate these points. At Savatthi there lived a wealthy man. He died without a will or children and this meant that his property went to the king, who was amazed to see that the man had eight million gold coins, to say nothing of the silver. Yet all his life, this man ate the poorest food (mostly sour gruel made from rice husks left over from the day before). His clothing consisted of the cheapest hemp garments, and his carriage was a rotten little chariot rigged up with a leaf-awning. Though the Buddha required monks in his order to live very simply, he criticized this man. He had acquired a great fortune but he didnt use it to benefit anyone, neither himself nor his parents, nor his wife and children, nor his slaves, craftsmen and servants, nor his friends and colleagues. Nor did he give any money to charity. A man who hoards his wealth will find it is either confiscated by kings or by robbers, or burnt by fire, or carried away by flood, or appropriated by heirs for whom he hath no affection. Riches that are not rightly used run to waste, not enjoyment. According to the Buddha, the wealth of a miser is like a lake, . . . a lake of clear, cold, delicious, crystalline water, with good shores and most lovely, but lying in a savage region. None could come to draw or drink from it, bathe in it, or make any use of it whatever.47 According to this perspective, those who spend little of their money are not necessarily more virtuous than those who spend freely for luxuries. Like Scrooge in A Christmas Carol, they

163 actually do harm by reducing spending that benefits society as well as themselves. Americans have a high standard of living today partly because of the use of advertising to stimulate demand and, therefore, economic growth, in previous generations. The Buddha apparently did not regard all worldly desires as tanha. Therefore, advertising for products that serve these desires is not necessarily bad. However, many advertisements I have endured clearly do appeal to tanha. Though I dont want advertising banned, I would very much like to see it reformed. If the amount of manipulation in advertising can be reduced, advertising may actually become what Albert Low called it in Zen and Creative Management, a means for helping people articulate their desires and mindfully choose which ones to satisfy. In summary, manipulative advertising, like manipulative management, is bad. It harms those who practice it as well as those who are victimized by it. However, advertising is not evil in itself, because consumption is not evil in itself. If advertising stimulates people to spend in beneficial ways, it is a good thing. Unfortunately, much of the advertising we absorb daily is manipulative. When we are the victims of such advertising, Buddhism suggests that we watch our reactions mindfully and reflect on the manipulative message of the ads if we find ourselves drawn to them. If we are involved in marketing or advertising ourselves, we should reflect on the fact that advertising can provide genuinely useful information; working in marketing can be Right Livelihood. It is possible to resist the pressures to develop manipulative advertising and to develop marketing campaigns that really are honestly informative to consumers. Those who do so can be genuinely proud of their work and, more importantly, they may help to transform their industry. Accounting and Auditing

164 Accounting and auditing are rarely discussed in Buddhist management books; but I expect that the topic will receive more space in future books. In the last few years, auditing has become a very important concern for businesses. In 2002, the Enron corporation collapsed because of questionable accounting and it dragged down one of the nations largest accounting firms, Arthur Anderson, whose auditors approved the Enron practices designed to hide debt and mislead investors. Auditing practices are now in question. The Buddha had nothing to say about modern accounting and auditing, and I found only one individual who has dealt with this topic. The Quest for Self by Iizuka, whom I mentioned briefly in Chapter 2, is the only piece that attempted to give a Buddhist perspective on auditing. He says that auditors cannot rely only on generally accepted accounting standards in doing their work. They must acquire Buddhist transcendental consciousness, that will allow them to avoid self-serving motives when doing their work.48 Transcendental consciousness, acquired through meditation, is free from the habitual pattern of thought that individuals acquire in the process of living and training in their professions, including the accounting profession. He says, I really pray that American CPAs may realize the necessity of Zen training.49 Bazerman, Lowenstein, and Moore stress the importance of unconscious bias in all important business and life decisions, including auditing decisions. The authors describe the ways auditors familiarity with their clients leads them to identify with their clients interests and to accept their clients assumptions about how financial data should be reported when there is any ambiguity in the rules. Their commitment to their clients escalates over time and this makes them less willing to expose fraud.50

165 At first glance, this research seems to argue that auditors should not spend too much time with any single company. Some have proposed that auditors be rotated among clients regularly to prevent them becoming too identified with any one company. However, this practice would create problems of its own. One recent study of audit reporting failures showed that there were significantly more audit reporting failures in the early years of the auditor/client relationship than in the later years. As an auditor develops a relationship with a client, he or she comes to understand the organization more thoroughly and better understand the context of financial data, making it more likely that they will recognize and report problems exposed by their audits. Rotating auditors to reduce their time with any one client might actually increase the problems of auditors failing to report corporate fraud.51 Clearly, what is needed is a means to reduce this dysfunctional identification among auditors so that they can have long-term relationships with their client companies that enable them to develop the background knowledge necessary for effective auditing. I am not sure auditors need to develop transcendental consciousness but Buddhist training might help auditors avoid dysfunctional identification. Individuals who attempt to express the truth revealed by transcendental consciousness will encounter pressures to conform from others in their profession. However, their Buddhist training will give them the courage to resist such pressures. Iizuka says that his own Zen meditation has revealed to him that he, and all people, have the ability to express transcendental consciousness despite the resistance of others. Conclusion

166 In this chapter, I have covered several aspects of business management that have been discussed by Buddhists; encouraging competitiveness, leadership, decision-making, advertising, accounting and auditing. I think all Buddhists agree that manipulating others in any of these areas is wrong. However, it is possible to encourage competitiveness without betraying Buddhist principles. It is also possible to lead others honestly and help them to achieve business objectives as well as spiritual ones. Planning and decision-making can be accomplished in ways that allow all team members to express their views and contribute meaningfully to the outcome. It is possible to advertise honestly and to promote products without manipulating others. Finally, it is possible for accountants and auditors to engage in a sincere search for the truth that will help a company in honest self-reflection It is not easy to manage and promote businesses sincerely and in the spirit of Buddhism. It is impossible to lay down simple rules that will allow sincere trainees to be sure they are managing in ways that are consistent with their Buddhist beliefs. However, practicing management mindfully and keeping the examples from the Buddhas own experience in view offer the best chance of transforming administrative work into training. Some Better Questions How can I avoid mindless identification with my own side in competitive struggles? How can I use competition as a spiritual practice? How can I plan and make decisions without becoming mindlessly attached to the outcomes? How can I lead others without manipulating them? How can I market products, services, or ideas in ways that will help others to use the things I market for their own spiritual training? How can I use the principles and procedures of accounting and auditing to improve my understanding of businesses and my own training?

167 1. Inoue, S. 1998. Putting Buddhism to Work: A New Approach to Management and Business. Tokyo: Kodansha International, pp. 106-107. 2. Ibid. p.107-108. 3. Ibid. p. 108. 4. Schwenk, C. 2002. Identity, Learning, and Decision-Making in Changing Organizations. New York: Quorum Books, Ch. 6. 5. Glassman, B. & Fields, R. 1996. Instructions to the Cook: A Zen Masters Lessons in Living a Life that Matters. New York, NY.: Bell Tower, pp. 126-127. 6. Miller, D. 1990. The Icarus Paradox. New York: HarperBusiness. 7. Payutto, P. 1992. Buddhist Economics. Geocities.com/Athens/Academy/9280/econ.htm, Ch. 5, p. 8. 8. Walsh, M. 1989. Thus Have I Heard: Long Discourses of the Buddha. London: Wisdom Publications, Sutta # 16, Section 1.6 9. Warder, A. 1970. Indian Buddhism. Delhi, India: Motilal Banarsidass, pp. 57-59. 10. Schuman, H. 1989. The Historical Buddha. London, England: Penguin, p. 156. 11. Chakravati, U. 1992. Buddhism as a discourse of dissent?: Class and gender, Pravada, 1, pp. 12-8. 12. Ibid. p. 16 13. Ibid. 14. Zadek, S. 1993. The practice of Buddhist economics? American Journal of Economics & Sociology, 52, pp. 433-445. Zadek, S. & Szabo, S. 1993. Buddhist organization: The case of the Sarvodaya Shramadana movement, Value-based Human Organization Working Paper Series No. 2, New Economics Foundation, London. 15. Ariyaratne, A. 1985. Collected Works Volume III, Sarvodaya Village Development Services. Macy, J. 1984. Dharma and Development, Kumerian Press. 16. Batchelor, M. & Brown, K. (eds.) 1992. Buddhism and Ecology. London: Cassell. 17. Chambers, R. 1992. Rural appraisal: Rapid, relaxed and participatory, Institute of Development Studies Working Paper 311, IDS, Brighton. Max-Neef, M. 1991. Human Scale Development: Conception, Application and Further

168 Reflections, London: Apex Press. 18. Schwenk, 2002, op cit. 19. Bell, S. 2002. Scandals in emerging Western Buddhism. In Prebish, C. & Baumann, M. (Eds.) Westward Dharma. Berkeley, CA.: University of California Press. 20. Shainberg, L. 1995. Ambivalent Zen: One Mans Adventures on the Dharma Path. New York, NY: Vintage Books. 21. Crews, F. 2002. Zen and the art of success. New York Review of Books, March 28, pp. 8-11. Downing, M. 2002. Shoes Outside the Door: Desire, Devotion, and Excess at San Franciso Zen Center. San Fancisco, CA: Counterpoint Press. Tworkov, H. 1989. Zen in America: Profiles of Five Teachers. San Francisco, CA.: North Point Press. 22. Bell, 2002, op cit. 23. Glassman & Fields, 1996, op cit.: Shainberg, 1995, op cit.: Tworkov, 1989, op cit. 24. Shainberg, 1995, op cit. 25. Bell, 2002, op cit. 26. Walsh, 1989, op cit. P. 245. 27. Schwenk, 2002, op cit. Ch. 2 28. Schwenk, 2002, op cit. 29. Tversky, A. & Kahneman, D. 1996. On the reality of cognitive illusions. Psychological Review, 103; 582-591. 30. Warder, 1970, op cit. P. 136. 31. Bhikkhu Bodhi. 1995 The Middle-Length Discourses of the Buddha. Boston: Wisdom Publications, pp. 477-492. 32. Ibid, pp, 477-492. 33. Phillips, M. 1997. Ethics and Manipulation in Advertising: Answering a Flawed Indictment. Westport, Ct.: Quorum. 34. Waide, J. 1987. The making of self and world in advertising. Journal of Business Ethics, 6: 73-79.

169 35. Schumacher, E. 1975. Small is Beautiful: Economics as if People Mattered. New York: Harper & Row, pp. 57-58. 36. Payutto, 1992, op cit. Ch. 1, pp. 7-8 37. Jones, K. 1989. The Social Face of Buddhism. London: Wisdom Publications, p. 337. 38. Schor, J. 1993. The Overworked Americans. New York: Basic Books. 39. Trachtenberg, P. 1999. Dharma in the republic of desire. Tricycle Fall, v. 33: 50-117, p. 52. 40. Ibid, p. 117. 41. Sivaraksa, S. 2002. Economic aspects of social and environmental violence from a Buddhist perspective. Buddhist-Christian Studies, 22: 47-60, p. 53. 42. Kaza, S. 2000. Overcoming the grip of consumerism. Buddhist-Christian Studies, 20: 23-42. 43. Franklin, B. 1779/1989. Letter to Madame Brillon In Baym, N. (Ed.) The Norton Anthology of American Literature. New York: Norton, pp. 403-405. 44. Franklin, B. 1757/1989. The way to wealth In Baym, N. (Ed.) The Norton Anthology of American Literature. New York: Norton, pp. 361-367. 45. Sutherland, M. 1993. Advertising and the Mind of the Consumer. St. Leonards, Australia: Allan & Unwin, pp. 9 & 60. 46. Phillips, M. 1997. Ethics and Manipulation in Advertising: Answering a Flawed Indictment. Westport, Ct.: Quorum. See Chapter 5 Advertising and the Propensity to Consume 47. Rhys-Davids, C. 1990. Kindred Sayings. Oxford: Pali Text Society, V. 1, 1990, p. 115-6. 48. Iizuka, T. 1995. The Quest for Self: Zen in Business and Life. New York: NYU Press, pp. 149-154. 49. Ibid. p. 141 50. Bazerman, M., Lowenstein, G., & Moore, D. 2002. Why good accountants do bad audits. Harvard Business Review, 80, 1, 97-102. 51. Geiger, M. & Raghunandan, K. 2001. Auditor tenure and audit reporting failures. Auditing, 21, pp. 1-25.

170 CHAPTER 6: A BUDDHIST ECONOMICS? Introduction In the last two chapters, I covered the implications of Buddhism for individuals and businesses. But Buddhism also relates to broader issues of commerce and society. In this chapter, I will deal with a number of questions about economics, capitalism, and the public welfare from a Buddhist perspective. I will begin with the broad question of whether economics is incomplete without a consideration of spiritual or religious values. I will then consider whether one specific economic system, capitalism, is consistent with Buddhism. I will describe some alternative styles of capitalism to see whether any of them is more consistent with Buddhism than any others. I will discuss the relationship between Buddhist monasticism and economic growth. Finally, I will discuss business and the environment from a Buddhist perspective. Some Good Questions Should economics include spiritual or ethical issues? Is there a Buddhist economics? Is Japanese or European capitalism more consistent with Buddhism than American capitalism? Does the cost of maintaining a monastic order reduce a countrys potential economic growth? How can Buddhists in business contribute to saving the environment? Should Buddhists oppose globalization? Religion and Economics Some writers argue that we need a Buddhist Economics that places more emphasis on people and less on profits than traditional economics.1 This sentiment is echoed by those writing in the Judeo-Christian tradition; who argue for an Islamic economics2, a Christian economics3, and a Jewish economics.4 In the view of these writers, the economics that is taught in universities and

171 that influences government policy is too narrow. By neglecting spiritual and ethical issues, economists put too much emphasis on economic growth. It is important to remember that early economists were very concerned with moral and religious issues. Adam Smith, author of the Wealth of Nations5 was also a moral philosopher. Malthus, author of the Essay on the Principle of Population 6, was a Christian minister. According to Waterman, in the classical period of the history of economics, from 1776 through the mid-1830s, all economists, regardless of their private beliefs, operated within a milieu determined by Christian values. They were deeply concerned about the moral and theological implications of the problem of scarcity and the competition for resources it produces. Further, they wrote about the sorts of economic arrangements they felt were most consistent with Gods will.7 Few economists today explicitly incorporate Gods will into their theoretical arguments for economic policy prescriptions. Since the 1890s, academic economics has been separated from the study of theology and ethics. At the turn of the century, this separation was lauded as a kind of intellectual revolution. Since this revolution, however, people have called for a larger role for ethics and values in economics and management, as demonstrated in reviews of recent literature in publications like the Christian Scholars Review and the Journal for the Association of Christian Economists.8 In calling for more emphasis on values, Christian economists echo the sentiments of those writing on Buddhism and economics. There are many other points in common between those writing in the two traditions. First, as I mentioned in Chapter 4, both agree that wealth, in itself, is not a problem. It is a blessing from God in the Christian tradition and the result of past good karma in the Buddhist tradition.

172 However, lack of wealth is not necessarily the result of Gods anger or evil done in the past. Both traditions are concerned about extremes of wealth and poverty in society. Christians must resolve the question of why God permits scarcity and poverty to exist while Buddhists must come to understand poverty as one of the manifestations of dukkha or suffering which is a spur to their training. Second, both traditions deal explicitly with borrowing and lending money. Usury, lending money at unfair interest rates, is condemned by both traditions. Within the Judeo-Christian tradition, Islam specifically forbids lending money at interest. Though there are no similar prohibitions in Buddhism, there are prohibitions against unfair business dealings which would include usury. Both traditions urge believers to follow common sense and avoid debt, though it is difficult for Christians or Buddhists to avoid all debt in America today, where borrowing is customary in financing large purchases. Writers from both traditions criticize economists for their implicit assumptions about human behavior; that human beings are rational, self-interested individuals whose lives are focused on money and material possessions. Buddhist and Christian critics argue that this view leads economists to miss much of the emphasis Christianity places on justice in the context of a relational community. They are led by the logic of their tradition to focus on market solutions to virtually every problem.9 I believe most economists would answer this criticism by saying that they do not claim people only pursue their self-interest. However, they are focusing on economic behavior and their assumptions appear to predict this behavior. Further, behavioral economists like Nobel laureates

173 Herbert Simon and Daniel Kahneman have modified some of the assumptions of economics and have attempted to use economic theory to explain social and altruistic behavior. Most economists would say that we do not need to incorporate our religious beliefs into economic theory any more than we need to incorporate them into mathematics. Economics is about developing models that predict peoples behavior. If these models are shown to be inaccurate, they should be revised based on data about peoples economic behavior not on our religious faith. However, economic policy is another matter. Government policies that affect economic life must take values into account. It is in economic policy that Buddhist values may be represented. Concerns about the limitations of economic policy have lead both Buddhist and Christian writers to offer alternatives. In developing these alternatives, they have attempted to incorporate some of their own religious beliefs into economic models. Since the topic of this book is Buddhism, I will only discuss economic policy in relation to Buddhism. Those interested in more information on Christian economics can begin by consulting the sources I cited above. Buddhism and Economic Policy According to some writers, capitalism is not consistent with Buddhism. Some question the basis of capitalism, private property. Sivarakasa calls capitalism a violent and highly unjust system that benefits only a few transnational corporations (which he calls transnational tyrannies). He feels The so-called triumph of capitalism in the late twentieth century in fact exploded the moral world.10 Ives states,

174 In addition to work, a key value in a Zen economics might be sharing based on non-attachment to possessions. Though many have held up self-interest in a free market as the key to economic balance and well-being, selfishness and self-centered motivation in large-scale economic systems have not led to economic processes that satisfy everyones basic needs, support social and global peace, or sustain ecosystems. The simplicity, non-possessiveness and generosity seen in traditional monastic life could be advocated and materialistic self-aggrandizement rejected. . . . In the context of the Buddhist tradition, Zen can argue that insofar as the basic needs of some people are not being met, personal property should be held in trust for possible use and enjoyment by others. From the perspective of Buddhism and its metaphysics of impermanence and relationality, both property and the property owner are non substantial, so we can say that, in a sense, property belongs to no one in particular.11 The term Dhammic Socialism, is often used by those who argue that Buddhism is consistent with socialism. This term was coined by Buddhadasa Bhikkhu in a book entitled Dhammic Socialism, who argued that the Buddhist principles of non attachment and lovingkindness suggest that the Buddha would have favored a society in which all goods were held in common.12 In my own reading of the Pali Canon I cannot find support for his view. Others feel that there is a place for the basic institutions of capitalism like private property and the use of markets. However, they argue that what John Maynard Keynes called the animal spirits unleashed by capitalism can be harmful to Buddhist training and to the planet and must be restrained and regulated in various ways.

175 Schumacher, in Chapter 4 of his book Small is Beautiful, gave one of the clearest, briefest, and most compelling statements of this perspective.13 I am impressed by the way he is able to make this extremely complex topic seem simple and straightforward. However, he achieves this effect by oversimplification. The first sentence of his chapter shows how his style makes the issue seem misleadingly simple, Right Livelihood is one of the requirements of the Buddhas Noble Eightfold Path. It is clear, therefore, that there must be such a thing as Buddhist economics.14 At first glance, this statement seems obviously true but on further examination, it proves to be too vague to be helpful. It is true that Right Livelihood is part of the Buddhas path but beyond abstaining from certain kinds of occupations, Right Livelihood does not specify what sort of job one should take or what sort of economic system is best. Thus, what seems clear and simple to Schumacher is actually a very difficult and subtle point that trainees must address as they decide how to carry their Buddhist beliefs into the workplace. Schumacher attacks what he calls economic planning, specifically, the economic policies relating to unemployment. He objects to economic planners raising interest rates and undertaking other policies that will increase unemployment in order to reduce inflation and achieve price stability. He says, From a Buddhist point of view, this is standing the truth on its head by considering goods as more important than people and consumption as more important than creative activity. It means shifting the emphasis from the worker to the product of work, that is, from the human to the subhuman, a surrender to the forces of evil.

176 The very start of Buddhist economic planning would be a planning for full employment, and the primary purpose of this would in fact be employment for everyone who needs an outside job: it would not be the maximization of employment, nor the maximization of production. Women, on the whole, do not need an outside job, and the large-scale employment of women in offices or factories would be considered a sign of serious economic failure.15 Schumacher suggests that Buddhist economists would favor low interest rates to keep employment high. I must disagree. Low interest rates promote economic growth and high employment by making inflation more likely. Excessive focus on low interest rates was one of the economic policies that led to the stagflation of the late 1970s and early 1980s. Further, Schumachers discomfort with the rising numbers of women in the workforce seems anachronistic now. I believe that Buddhism does not condemn women participating in the workforce. In the next chapter I will discuss the increasing role of women in American business and Buddhism in the future. Though some people lament the fact that working leaves women less time to spend on children and household chores, I believe their participation enriches the American workforce, as it does the American Buddhist community. Schumacher was also an early opponent of globalization, and claimed that Buddhism supported his position, reasoning thus, From the point of view of Buddhist economics, therefore, production from local resources for local needs is the most rational way of economic life, while dependence on imports from afar and the consequent need to produce for export

177 to unknown and distant peoples is highly uneconomic and justifiable only in exceptional cases and on a small scale.16 He concludes with comments on the consequences of modernization and a statement of the basic objectives of Buddhist economics. There is the immediate question of whether modernization, as currently practiced without regard to religious and spiritual values, is actually producing agreeable results. As far as the masses are concerned, the results appear to be disastrousa collapse of the rural economy, a rising tide of unemployment in town and country, and the growth of a city proletariat without nourishment in either body or soul. It is in the light of both immediate experience and long-term prospects that the study of Buddhist economics could be recommended even to those who believe that economic growth is more important than any spiritual or religious values. For it is not a question of choosing between modern growth and traditional stagnation. It is a question of finding the right path of development, the Middle Way between materialist heedlessness and traditionalist immobility, in short, of finding Right Livelihood.17 I find Schumachers comments confusing. While I recognize that increased global trade has created economic dislocation and suffering, I do not think the solution is to compel people to consume only locally-produced products. I, for one, happen to enjoy oranges and bananas, which do not grow well in Oregon where I live. I would not like to be restricted to only apples and

178 blackberries. Further, I am not sure that modern economic growth represents materialist heedlessness. Schumachers view, though influential, is not the only view. Others writing on the topic have accepted modern capitalism, with its focus on controlling inflation rather than simply ensuring full employment, with its emphasis on global trade, and with its acceptance of women in the labor force. The most significant debates about Buddhism and economics concern which type of capitalism is best or most consistent with Buddhism. Buddhism and the Varieties of Capitalism Capitalism is not practiced the same way in all countries. In America, we have a lessregulated, and perhaps more aggressive form of capitalism than in Japan, Germany, and many Asian and European countries. In Japan and Germany, employees generally have more secure employment than in America, where businesses are more likely to lay off workers in times of difficulty. The interests of stockholders come first in American businesses while German and Japanese executives take the interests of employees and communities more seriously in making major strategic decisions. Inoue, whom I discussed briefly in Chapter 2, argues that Japanese or German style capitalism, which involve more cooperation between business, unions, regulators, and other important groups in society, are better models for Buddhist economics than the American variety.18 Jones, in The Social Face of Buddhism, argues that Buddhists can eventually transform the economy and society by allowing people to actualize Buddhist values in their own lives. According to Jones, there is a place for small business in an economy run according to Buddhist

179 principles, and private businesses do not need to be nationalized. However, to avoid fragmentation of peoples lives, workplace activities must be integrated into the life of the community in which people live.19 He expresses concern about the large corporations that control our lives. Such organizations allow evil to occur on a massive scale because they divide labor and responsibility in ways that encourage people to go along with evil actions initiated by their superiors.20 Jones might agree with Inoue that America needs a more regulated form of capitalism similar to Japanese or German capitalism. The American corporate scandals of the last several years have convinced some that American-style capitalism is especially subject to abuse and theft by corporate executives. This is not true. Abuse of power takes different forms in the European and Japanese corporations but it is not necessarily less harmful. Some argue that we have had more visible corporate scandals in America partly because we have a more transparent system that allows corporate wrongdoing to be rooted out and vigorously punished. In America, the abuses may seem larger because the sums of money involved are larger. Richmond, in Work as a Spiritual Practice, offers a more nuanced view. When he was writing, American-style capitalism appeared to be the most successful form but he lamented the fact that it does not do a good job of providing income stability or supportive work environments.21 Roach, author of The Diamond Cutter makes a similar point.22 Richmond says that American-style capitalism reflects the values of American society. Here, businesses create jobs but their purpose is to produce wealth and generate profit. Japanese and German-style capitalism place somewhat more emphasis on providing employment security.

180 Two decades ago, it was the Japanese-style corporate model that was seen as the worlds future. In the late 1990s, the American economic system was the envy of the world. Richmond, writing in 1999, wisely observed, It remains to be seen whether our dominance will continue or fall victim to yet another turn in the road..23 At the present time, in the early years of the 21st Century, the economies of America, Japan, and Germany are all doing poorly which means we are less likely to assume any one economic system is superior because it is doing well at the moment. We can more mindfully evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of the alternative systems for regulating business in society. Richmond considers his own case an argument for the American model. He was able to leave his old job with some severance pay and some useful skills, and create not only a viable business but several new jobs. He feels that in more regulated economies, there wouldnt have been any incentive for him to take the risk. Under communism, his effort would probably have been considered a crime.24 However, he also points out some of the limitations of American-style capitalism. One of these is the difficulty of incorporating any other values than profit into business decisions. As he notes, companies producing products harmful to our health (like tobacco) and those producing medical devices to save lives may be equally profitable but not equally valuable from the point of view of society. He also laments the fact that American capitalism does not protect people against some of the worst consequences of failure. In Japanese and European-style capitalism, employers are more reluctant to fire large numbers of workers during economic slowdowns. This has probably made Japanese and European companies less flexible in adapting to new conditions and seizing

181 new opportunities but it has also allowed them to retain the trust and loyalty of their workers. It is not yet clear what the long-term effects of these differences in business practice will be.25 Another difference between American, European, and Japanese capitalism has to do with income inequality. Over the last decade, income inequality between countries and within countries has increased. Income inequality in America is greater than in either Japan or Germany and American-style capitalism may encourage this inequality. However, inequality may not be a bad thing in itself. It depends upon the level of poverty and whether the wealthy are able to prevent the poor from becoming wealthy themselves. The rising inequality in this country may have lead to an increase in poverty. However, at least some research suggests that it has not. In other words, it does not seem that the rich got richer and the poor got poorer. Instead, it seems that the rich got much richer and the poor got a little less poor.26 This distinction is important because if our aim is to reduce suffering, and American capitalism has made even the poor even a little better off, it may have reduced overall suffering. If so, I would be reluctant to support regulatory policies that might blunt entrepreneurial initiative and slow economic growth. If, however, it has actually increased the suffering of the poor simply to make the rich extremely rich, then it has increased overall suffering. I, as a Buddhists, would support regulations designed to reduce inequality (for example, higher corporate tax rates and higher personal income tax rates for the wealthy) even though they might reduce the financial incentives that have lead to economic growth. In other words, I would argue for a move toward Japanese or European-style capitalism. Monasticism and Economic Growth

182 In Chapter 4, I discussed the value of charity. Individuals and businesses often make charitable contributions to religious organizations that support monastic training. Further, governments often support monasticism in various ways, from direct funding in Thailand to tax exemptions in America. Buddhist monks throughout history have been wholly or partly supported by governments as well as individual donations. However, some have claimed that this money is wasted and that charity should not be given to monks who do no productive work. This raises the question of whether monasticism itself is bad for an economy, whether it reduces economic growth. Max Weber, in The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism, and others have speculated that when lay people support monks who do not work, valuable resources are diverted from productive use. Therefore, the economy should grow more slowly than it would if there were no monks. Piker discusses the received wisdom from researchers addressing Webers original hypothesis.27 According to these authors, Buddhist monasticism, particularly the type practiced by the Theravada tradition in Thailand and elsewhere in Southeast Asia, reduces economic growth by draining resources from those who work. It also encourages an otherworldliness that leads lay people to undervalue worldly activities like work.28 There is some support for this claim. Ling provides some evidence to suggest that in Buddhist countries, "surplus material resources are devoted to economically unprofitable ends".29 Pryor argues that supporting a monastic order may be harmful to an economy. If reaching enlightenment depends on being freed from the conditions of production and reproduction (i.e., being a monk), then the best way to ensure that a large number of people in a society can reach enlightenment is to ensure that the economy grows rapidly. In this way, it will be able to support

183 increasing numbers of enlightenment-seeking (but otherwise unproductive) monks. There is, in short, a trade-off between some enlightenment now, and more enlightenment in the future.30 The alternative view is given by Ebihara, who reports that some of the donations given to monks in Cambodian peasant society are used to provide social services, such as health care and education, that would have to be provided by other institutions if they were not provided by the Sangha. These services increase social capital, or the economic benefits that come with improvement in the lives of citizens. According to Ebihara, a further proportion of such resources flows directly into construction and other economic activities. Such expenditures should not be considered as merely consumption, even if it is temples rather than factories that are being built.31 Zadek discusses the concept of radiation, which refers to the positive effect on society of giving resources to the monks.32 According to Pryor, "Buddhists hold that any appropriate dhammic action inevitably leads to an increase of the material welfare of the community".33 Reynolds and Clifford state that, "as a result of the monk's pure and selfless actions, the laity flourish".34 By consuming little themselves and by encouraging others to consume little, monks help ensure that more of a societys resources are available for investment. This increase in resources may be even greater than the resources consumed by unproductive monks. Daniels attempted to assess the effects of Buddhism on economic growth by examining a number of economic indicators across several Buddhist nations. The results of this research, however, showed no consistent effects of Buddhism across these nations.35 Though it seems plausible that monasticism might reduce economic growth, the evidence does not support this conclusion. In other words, economic analysis does not support the claim that the costs of Buddhist monasticism outweigh its benefits. For me, this means that individuals

184 and businesses can support Buddhist monks without worrying that they are diverting resources away from more productive uses. Business, Buddhism and the Environment: Is Buddhism Green? Proponents of Socially Engaged Buddhism argue that every Buddhist should work to reduce the environmental destruction caused by global capitalism. Buddhists have been involved in social action for millennia but the term Socially Engaged Buddhism is of recent origin. Christopher Queen notes that studies of the topic began to appear in the 1980's, and he describes the activities of Buddhists in alleviating poverty, promoting world peace, and protecting the environment.36 I will draw on Queens work and on other recent books and articles as I attempt to assess what socially engaged Buddhism might mean for Buddhists in business.37 Some Buddhists feel that the global spread of capitalism, especially over the last decade, has contributed to global violence and ecological destruction. Though most of these Buddhists do not argue that we should do away with capitalism, they feel Buddhists should work to mitigate the harm done by capitalists. However, it is hard to determine whether there is a Buddhist environmentalism. Let me
38

illustrate why by giving a quote from the Dhammapada, Cut down the whole forest, not just

one tree. (Dhammapada, # 211) This quote does not command Buddhists to destroy the environment but it does illustrate an important fact about Buddhism and environmentalism; for most of the history of Buddhism, the natural environment, the wilderness, was not seen as a fragile place threatened with destruction. For most of the history of humanity, wilderness was seen as dangerous and frightening, something needing to be subdued. In the quote above, the Buddha used the forest as an image of the tangle of desire and craving with which we must deal as

185 trainees. He suggested that we must eliminate all of them rather than concentrating on just one. He used wilderness as a metaphor because he wanted to emphasize the fact that desire and craving are dangerous and frightening like the wilderness. Sometime in the early part of the 19th Century, attitudes toward wilderness began to change. Today, we see the environment as threatened, and Buddhists must guess what the Buddha would have said about environmental destruction if he was alive today. It is clear that he was against the taking of life, including insect life. In the Vinaya Pitaka, he went so far as to forbid monks to wear silk because silkworms are killed in producing it. Therefore, it seems certain that he would have been troubled by the destruction of animal and insect habitat. On the other hand, he did not forbid farming, though he pointed out that plowing and harvesting kill huge numbers of insects and other small creatures. Those who write about Buddhist economics discuss ways that environmental concerns should be integrated into economics.39 Schumacher decries the effects of global capitalism on the natural environment while Payutto states that respect for the environment is a central tenet of Buddhist economics. Robert Aitken, a prominent American Zen roshi, also expresses concern about the destruction of our environment through excessive consumption. In his discussion of Deep Ecology, he says, The Deep Ecology movement has grown out of the despair of ecologists over the traditional resource-management mentality that is rapidly depleting our minerals, razing our forests, and poisoning our rivers and lakes. It is precisely the

186 same welfare society mentality that manages human resources for the short-term benefit of the managers themselves. Readers of the conventional media have more awareness of the dangers of war and nuclear poison than they have of the biological holocaust involved in clearing jungles, strip-mining mountains, disrupting the balance of life in the oceans, and draining coastal swamps. One must read the journals and bulletins of ecological societies to gain a perspective of the accelerating global disaster that our luxurious way of life is bringing down upon us all.40 Joanna Macy also warns of the need to avert global disaster and suggests that we replace our view of the world as a place to exploit with the view of the world as lover and as self. In her book, she argues for the greening of the self, or the expansion of our concept of self so that it encompasses the entire natural world. She argues that Buddhism will lead us to a kind of deep ecology in which we protect the environment not from virtue but from a kind of enlightened selfinterest.41 The people writing about Buddhism and management whom I discussed in Chapter 2 have relatively little to say about this topic. They all feel respect for the environment is important but give no detailed discussions of how managers should work toward making their own businesses more environmentally friendly. One exception is Shinichi Inoue who recently wrote an article entitled A new economics to save the earth: A Buddhist perspective, in the Journal of Japanese Trade and Industry. In it, he states that Japanese capitalism began in the Tokugawa period. The businesses of that time were able to obtain the capital and other resources needed to produce economic growth while

187 maintaining both economic and environmental sustainability. However, modern Japan has adopted a mass production model that creates tremendous waste, and should look back on the Tokugawa period for ideas about how to build a zero-emissions society in the future.42 During the Tokugawa period, the shogunate, or military government, feared the growing influence of the Western powers as they saw other Asian countries being colonized by them. Thus, the government instituted a "closed-country policy" restricting foreign trade to the Dutch through the single port city of Nagasaki. Though agriculture was, at that time, still the center of economic life, a sustainable model of economics developed in the capital city of Edo (Tokyo), which was one of the world's most populated cities at that time, and spread as the provinces became increasingly interconnected. What Inoue calls a zero-emissions economy developed which had the following elements, 1) Human waste from household toilets was collected periodically and sold to farmers from the outlying regions who used it for fertilizer. The payment was often made in the form of vegetable produce and this practice continued until World War II; 2) Well water was the primary form of water usage and was efficiently distributed using wooden pipes; 3) While most garbage was incinerated by the city, much of the resulting ash was recycled as fertilizer for household use; 4) To make products last longer, a wide array of repair businesses developed; 5) Waste water was not directed to the river, but treated naturally by letting it seep into the ground.43 Inoue cites examples of entrepreneurs in modern Japan who also represent this spirit such as Nishihara Shuzo, who headed a research institute (Nishihara Eisei Kenkyujo, founded in 1916) that developed recycling techniques to turn raw sewage into fertilizer. These principles of a sustainable economy relate to the Japanese concept of mottainai, which means being in awe of

188 nature as well as being thankful for its blessings which gives rise to the concept of "not wasting." These ideas have their root in the Buddhist teaching that all beings, and even inanimate objects, have the Buddha-nature. Inoue argues that Buddhist economics is "an economics of tolerance and peace." He claims that one distinguishing feature of Buddhism as a religion is that it has never engaged in a religious war. This emphasis on peace is based on the first ethical precept of Buddhism: Do not kill. While he admits that other religions have similar ethical principles, he says that Buddhism is the only one to have actually put it into practice. However, these statements are simply untrue. Buddhists in Japan and elsewhere have used Buddhism to support war. Brian Victorias Zen at War refutes Inoues point and shows that some Japanese roshis claimed Buddhism supported the destruction of America during World War II. Inoue also claims that Buddhist sacred texts are much more humble than Christian texts, as revealed in phrases such as, Issai shujo bussho ari, somoku kokudo mina jobutsu, meaning that plants, trees, and sentient beings, and even non-sentient beings, are equally bound up in the nature of the Buddha or cosmic life itself. He describes a large statue in the ancient temple of Todaiji in Nara in which the Buddha is depicted sitting on a large lotus flower. The petals of the flower are covered with small Buddha images, implying that the Great Buddha (or the cosmos) includes all the small Buddhas (such as human beings and other living things) in its vastness. Though this sentiment is admirable and aids us in sincere training, it does not demonstrate that Buddhism emphasizes humility more than Christianity.

189 Inoue feels that work done only for money (as it is in the West) leads to over consumption and worries that the cultural fabric of Asian nations might be broken if people lose the Buddhists view of work as training and exchanged it for what he calls a Western view of work as a hardship or burden. Work must lead to the kind of consumption that can ensure the happiness of others in the community. This approach to work and consumption is based on consideration for others, including nature, and can be the basis of a stable and sustainable economy, rather than one that has quick growth spurts and destroys the environment in the process. He says Buddhism suggests that true happiness cannot come without reducing these desires to gain more wealth and display it. Thus, Buddhist economics is an economics of simplicity. He says, Just as an impressively large gas-guzzling limo symbolizes excess, surely what we really need is a simpler and smaller, more fuel-efficient and non-polluting vehicle that can drive us to a more sustainable and brighter future.44 As a Westerner myself, I must disagree that Westerners view work only as a means to making money. Not only do many Westerners view work as spiritual training, but this idea is absolutely central to Christian conceptions of work as illustrated in the work of Thomas Aquinas, Martin Luther, and many, many others. Some American Buddhists have a somewhat different approach to environmentallyfriendly business. Bernard Glassman, in Instructions to the Cook, approvingly describes the efforts of Ben Cohen of Ben & Jerrys Ice Cream and Anita Roderick of the Body Shop to preserve the Amazon rain forest by, . . . finding products that would help preserve the rain forest instead of destroying it in the way that logging, cattle farming, and gold mining were doing. They were

190 looking for ways both to help the indigenous people who lived there and to make rainforest preservation economically profitable. Anita Roderick found a number of herbs and oils that could be used in her body care shops. Ben decided to make and market a candy called Rain Forest Crunch using brazil nuts.45 According to Inoue, Buddhist economics must create new ways of thinking about the economy so that the earth will be saved. Economics in the past emphasized profits and production levels as the only criteria for measuring the value of industries, but the impact of these industries in terms of the amount of natural resources consumed or their methods of production were not considered. If we are to take the concept of protecting the earth seriously, Inoue says, we must examine individual industries to see whether they are friendly or harmful to the earth. We must consider how natural resources are extracted, the production methods used, and the levels of pollution resulting from the production methods. Industries must be evaluated on a global scale in conjunction with sensitivity toward the needs of the so-called developing nations, which may still require industries that are considered harmful to the earth46 Inoue provides an example of a way to deal with business practices that are not respectful of the environment. He argues that American agricultural practices in the growing of rice make excessive use of chemicals and this justifies the exclusion of relatively cheap American rice from Japanese markets.47 I, as an individual practitioner of Buddhism, cannot easily agree with him. I do not understand how the Japanese governments reluctance to import American rice serves the principles of Buddhism.

191 Scholars have recently begun to explore the ambiguities and contradictions in Buddhists attitudes towards the environment, and have criticized simplistic claims that Buddhism supports any specific environmental policy. Swearer, for example, has said there is no univocal Buddhist ecological hermeneutic.48 Though I am still not sure what a Buddhist hermeneutic is, I think Swearer is saying that there is no single interpretation of Buddhist texts and teachings on the subject of ecology that all Buddhists would agree to. Eckel explored the question of whether there is a Buddhist philosophy of nature and said, If the intention of the question is to identify a simple, unified vision of the sanctity of the natural world, the answer must be no. If anything, there is the opposite.49 Self-confessed Green Buddhist Alan Sponberg has also questioned the views of Buddhist environmental activists.50 He explicitly criticizes Joanna Macys concept of the greening of the self. Macy stresses the Buddhist teaching that all creatures are equally worthy of love and compassion and in doing so, she downplays the Buddhist belief that human beings represent a higher level of consciousness than animals. Sponberg feels that Buddhists interested in protecting the environment must understand and appreciate this belief in a hierarchy of living beings, because it will help us understand that human beings have a special responsibility to care for animals and nature. In general, he feels that Buddhist environmentalists must be very careful not to distort Buddhism in their eagerness to support their environmental agendas. I will not attempt to summarize the discussions of these scholars because their arguments are complex, reflecting a complex moral reality. However, I agree with their basic point that we should not claim Buddhism in itself supports any particular environmental policy. Each Buddhist

192 must decide for herself what her own Buddhist practice implies for her attempts to preserve the natural environment. Some Buddhists, like Glassman and Inoue, express the same views on environmentalism as many business executives. They say that we can find ways to deal with environmental problems and make profits at the same time; and that we can measure industries damage to the environment objectively. These views are part of what Hoffman has described as the current dogma of corporate environmentalism.51 This dogma is articulated by many who study and teach management. For example, articles in the Harvard Business Review by professor of strategic management, Michael Porter, describe ways environmental problems can be turned into profits for companies.52 Among those who teach management at the college level, one of the most important professional societies is the Academy of Management. The Academy of Management Journal recently had a special issue on the management of organizations in the natural environment.53 The articles in this special issue argue that we can objectively determine which corporate activities support the environment and which do not. If this is true, then according to Glassman and Inoue, we can decide which corporate activities are most consistent with Buddhism. However, as I have said before, such decisions are much more complex than many writers suggest. This general approach is consistent with the concept of free-market environmentalism promoted by Terry Anderson (1991). Anderson advocates free-market environmentalism as an alternative to the principle of sustainable development; that we should only develop natural resources in a way that sustains them for future generations (Anderson & Deal, 1991, pp. 167171). He suggests that, if we make natural resources subject to property rights; in other words, if

193 we allow people to own them, we will make it more likely that they will be managed effectively. This approach would help ensure the survival of a wide variety of species, from fish to buffalo to redwoods.54 However, for some environmentalists, the search for profitable solutions to environmental problems is part of the problem. They feel that profits play too large a role in business as it is. Further, they feel that we can easily identify those industries that are harming the earth now and that the real problem is that they control the political processes in order to resist efforts to reduce their harmful impact on the earth. They will do this because it is profitable.55 Some Buddhists feel that global capitalism is at the root of both global violence and environmental destruction. To the extent that this is true, we Western Buddhists are living well because other people and species are dying. As a Western Buddhist, this makes me profoundly uncomfortable and guilty; as it should. If it were possible to simply withdraw from the system, I and many other Buddhists would be tempted to do so. However, I do not think this is an option. The only course of action that makes sense to me is to attempt to learn more about global capitalism and to attempt to find ways to mitigate its harm. However, we must keep the concept of skillful means in mind. Some attempts to curb the effects of global capitalism could have very bad effects. For example, any macroeconomic policy designed to achieve E. F. Schumachers goal of keeping women out of the workforce is likely to do more harm than good. How can we design global economic policies that really will reduce suffering? The sorts of manipulation and distortion of the truth that can corrupt business management can corrupt environmentalism. By encouraging individuals to identify with their cause, some who attempt to defend the environment may distort information and encourage

194 biased or deluded thinking. In Chapter 3, I discussed the need to balance identities in the selfschema. Some environmentalists encourage us to link our citizen and family identities with their cause. In an earlier book, I discussed a specific example of this kind of distortion in the debate about the use of cyanide in a new kind of gold mining call tailing dump leaching.56 Conclusions In this chapter, I have covered a number of topics related to Buddhism, economic and environmental policy. While I agree that Buddhist values should be reflected in economic policy, I do not agree with much of what has been written in the past on Buddhist economic policy. Nor do I agree that American-style capitalism is less consistent with Buddhism than European or Japanese capitalism, though I am concerned about the excesses of our economic system. I found no specific statements in the Pali Canon dealing with the need for merchants or householders to protect the environment. However, it is clear that the Buddha required monks to live in ways that made few demands on the environment. For example, monks were initially required to live in small huts constructed in ways that did as little harm as possible to the surroundings. Further, it seems that the Buddhist concepts of ahimsa (non-harming or nonkilling) and metta (loving-kindness) imply that we should avoid all action that harms any living being. However, because of past kamma, we live in a world that requires us to make difficult choices between alternative courses of action that involve doing different kinds of harm to living beings. For example, we must choose between supporting a ban on logging on public lands because it kills owls, fish, and other creatures, or supporting logging because it promotes the welfare of human beings who make their living by logging. The principles of loving-kindness and

195 non-harming do not give us a clear answer to the question of which policies we should pursue. Sincere practitioners of Buddhism must decide whether we are serving these principles by supporting or opposing specific environmental policies. All those writing on Buddhism and management would agree that Buddhism promotes respect for the environment. Does this mean that Buddhism supports the current Kyoto Protocol for reducing global warming approved by the European Union but rejected by the administration of President George W. Bush? I confess I do not know. Perhaps it is appropriate for me to end with this statement; I do not know what sorts of economic and environmental policies are most consistent with Buddhism. My own inquiry into the subject makes me reluctant to say that Buddhism supports smaller automobiles, recycling, high-density housing or a number of other policies with which I personally agree. Perhaps all Buddhists must be lamps unto themselves in determining for themselves which policies they support. Because of the complexity of this topic, I dont feel qualified to give guidelines for incorporating Buddhism into economic and environmental policy. My criticisms of earlier authors who have given overly simplistic guidelines has left me with a number of questions. Some Better Questions What sort of economic system will release peoples animal spirits without turning society into a jungle? How can we determine whether one form of capitalism causes more overall suffering than another? How can we design markets and other capitalist institutions so that people can provide for their material needs AND train more effectively? Through my work, how

196 can I reduce the harm done to other creatures and the environment? How can we reduce the negative effects of globalization?

197 APPENDIX 4: BUSINESS EDUCATION AND CORPORATE ETHICS Nearly all of the corporate financial fraud that has helped create the current crisis of confidence was perpetrated by people with extensive business education, often with MBAs. Malcom Gladwell, author of The Tipping Point, attributes recent corporate failures and scandals to management theories promoted by some consultants and academics that he calls the Cult Of Talent.57 According to this view, the business challenges posed by the New Economy require exceptionally talented people who can articulate a vision and convince others to follow it. I made a similar point in a 1997 article in the Business Strategy Review57 where I argued for the benefits of weaker leadership. I feel that the real obstacles to the expression of diverse views in businesses are the most difficult to deal with because they are generally regarded as virtues. These include clear strategic vision, strong leadership, and the creation of strong commitment to the leaders strategy. Business schools provide future business executives with the skills they will need to become exceptional leaders. As a former member of the faculty of a university with one of the largest MBA programs, Indiana University, I have been thinking about whether business education is partially responsible for the behavior of corporate criminals at Enron, Global Crossing, and other companies that are added to the list daily. I am sorry to say it is. For two decades, from 1976 through 1996, I studied, researched, and taught undergraduates, MBAs, and doctoral students strategic management, which was the last required course that summarized the principles of management for those completing their undergraduate

198 and MBA education and for those who decided to specialize in strategic management in our doctoral program. In all of my courses, I attempted to raise ethical questions about the conduct of business. In my undergraduate and MBA courses, I always included sections and lectures dealing specifically with business ethics. I am sorry to say that these sections were nearly always unpopular with students, who considered them irrelevant. At first, I thought that this was because my students were only interested in making money; now, I understand that it was partly because of the kind of education they received at the business school prior to coming to my course. By that time, they had learned that corporate ethics was something peripheral to their work, and that they could ignore what I had to say about ethics. A few years before I resigned from Indiana University, the administration of the business school decided that we should focus more on the MBA program and attempt to increase our ranking in the Business Week rankings of MBA programs. The dean and others never said that we should neglect undergraduate or doctoral students but with more resources and faculty time devoted to MBAs, there was inevitably less for other students. For example, nearly all of the undergraduate sections of strategy were taught by doctoral students rather than faculty. I was sometimes the only faculty member who taught undergraduates. Students were understandably unhappy about being unable to get a faculty member for their last required course of their senior year. Doctoral student education also received less faculty commitnment than I felt it needed. The focus on the Business Week rankings was so intense that I believe it lead to unethical behavior. Each schools ranking was determined partly by a survey of students. At Indiana, students were asked by the administration to accentuate the positive in their rankings because it

199 was in their own interests to have Indiana ranked highly. I was not personally aware that this was being done but perhaps I should have made more of an effort to find out. Business Week itself singled out Indiana for criticism on this practice. However, Indiana Universitys ranking jumped to number 7, meaning that it was the 7th best business school in the world. I resigned not long afterwards. However, within about 5 years, Indiana University had fallen to a rank of 21st. I think this ranking more accurately reflects the quality of the Indiana University business school; a good school but not in the worlds top ten. You could say that our rankings were inflated and that the ranking process had been manipulated by the school. I see some similarities between what Indiana did and what executives in some high-tech firms did during the last several years. When students were asked to inflate the rankings of the school for their own benefit, some may have been a bit more inclined to inflate other performance numbers. This is only one example of the ways business education reflects and strengthens the values of the business culture in this country. I am sorry to say that when I was teaching business, short-term, measurable performance objectives were too important and ethics was not a sufficiently important part of business decision-making for either students or administrators. I resigned partly because I felt this was unlikely to change. However, I honestly hope I was wrong and that business education has changed for the better since the corporate scandals of the early yers of the 21st Century. The most recent information I have is not encouraging. A recent editorial by Indianas current dean in the Kelley Magazine, a promotional publication sent to alumni, continues to

200 emphasize the value of business school rankings, claiming they help good schools become even better and that high rankings reassure our proud alumni that their commitment is well-placed. He mentions with pride the fact that Indiana is now ranked as the 20th best business school in the Business Week rankings and he cites other rankings that place the business school even higher. These performance rankings seem to have become more important during the years I have been gone.

201 1. Schumacher, E. 1975. Small is Beautiful: Economics as if People Mattered. New York: Harper & Row, pp. 50-58. 2. Choudhury, M. 1986. Contributions to Islamic Economic Theory. New York: St. Martins Press. Ul Haq, Irfan 1996. Economic Doctrines of Islam. Herndon, Virginia: International Institute of Islamic Thought. 3. North, G. 1986. Free market capitalism. In R. Clouse (Ed.) Wealth and Poverty: Four Christian Views of Economics. Downers Grove, IL.: InterVarsity Press. Rose, T. 1986. Economics: Principles and Policy from a Christian Perspective. Mercer, Pennsylvania: American Enterprise Publications. 4. Soss, N. 1973. Old Testament law and economic society. Journal of the History of Ideas, 34: 323-344. 5. Smith, A. 1776/1910. The Wealth of Nations. London: Dent & Sons. 6. Malthus, T. 1798/1966. The First Essay on Population. London: MacMillan. 7. Waterman, A. 1987. Economists on the relation between political economy and Christian theology: A preliminary survey. International Journal of Social Economics, 14, 46-68, p. 50. 8. Gay, C. 1994. On learning to live with the market economy. Christian Scholars Review, 24, 180-195. Hoksbergen, R. 1994. Is there a Christian economics? Some thoughts in light of the rise of postmodernism. Christina Scholars Review, 24, 126-142. Tiemstra, J. 1993. Christianity and economics: A review of the recent literature. Christian Scholars Review, 22, 227-247. 9. Hoksbergen, 1994, op cit. P. 136 10. Sivaraksa, S. 2002. Economic aspects of social and environmental violence from a Buddhist perspective. Buddhist-Christian Studies, 22: 47-60, p. 47. Wilson, R. 1997. Comparative religious thought on economic behavior and financial transactions. Journal of the Association of Christian Economists, 23, 1-10. 11. Ives, C. 1992. Zen Awakening and Society. Honolulu, Hawaii: University of Hawaii Press, pp. 127-128. 12. Buddhadasa Bhikku. 1986. Dhammic Socialism. Bangkok: Sahamitr Prinitng Co. 13. Schumacher, 1975, op cit, pp. 50-58. 14. Ibid. p. 50.

202 15. Ibid. pp. 53-54. 16. Ibid. pp. 55-56. 17. Ibid. p. 58. 18. Inoue, S. 1997. Putting Buddhism to Work: A New Approach to Management and Business. Tokyo: Kodansha International. 19. Jones, K. 1989. The Social Face of Buddhism. London: Wisdom Publications, pp. 329-333. 20. Ibid. pp. 233-236. 21. Richmond, L. 1999. Work as a Spiritual Practice. New York: Broadway Books. 22. Roach, M. 2000. The Diamond Cutter: The Buddha on Managing Your Business and Your Life. New York: Doubleday. 23. Richmond, 1999, op cit. P. 244. 24. Richmond, 1999, op cit. P. 246 25. Richmond, 1999, op cit. P. 247 26. Hilsenrath, J. 2002. Income gap narrowed at the end of the 90's. Wall Street Journal, April 24, p. 2. 27. Piker, S. 1993. Therevada Buddhism and Catholicism: A social historical perspective on religious change, with special reference to Centesimus Annus. Journal of Business Ethics, 12, 965-973, p. 966. 28. Evers, H. 1973. Modernization in Southeast Asia. Singapore: Oxford University Press. Niehoff, A. 1964. Therevada Buddhism: A vehicle for technical change. Human Organization. 23, Pieris, R. 1968. Economic development and ultramundaneity. In S. Eisenstadt (Ed.) The Protestant Ethic and Modernization. New York: Basic Books. Smith, D. 1965. Religion and Politics in Burma. Princeton, NJ.: Princeton University Press. 29. Ling, T., 1980. Buddhist values and development policy: A case study of Sri Lanka, World Development, 7/8, pp. 577-86, p. 580. 30. Pryor, F. 1991. A Buddhist economic system--in practice, American Journal of Economics & Sociology, 50, pp.17-32. 31. Ebihara, M.1966. Interrelations between Buddhism and social systems in Cambodian peasant culture. In N. Manning (Ed.), Anthropological studies in Theravada Buddhism (pp. 175-247). New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.

203 32. Zadek, S. 1993. The practice of Buddhist economics? American Journal of Economics & Sociology, 52, pp. 433-445 33. Pryor, F. 1991. A Buddhist economic system--in practice, American Journal of Economics & Sociology, 50, pp.17-32, p. 18. 34. Reynolds, F. & Clifford, R. 1980. Sangha, society and the struggle for national identity: Burma and Thailand, In Reynolds, F. & Ludwig, B. (eds.), Transitions and Transformations in the History of Religions, Leiden: Brill, pp. 56-94, p. 62. 35. Daniels, P. 1998. Economic change, the environment, and Buddhism in Asia. International Journal of Social Economics, 25: 968-1004. 36. Queen, C. 2002. Engaged Buddhism: Agnosticism, interdependence, globalization. In Prebish, C. & Baumann, M. (Eds.) Westward Dharma. Berkeley, CA.: University of California Press, p. 339. 37. See Badiner, Dharma Gaia, 1990; Batchelor & Brown, Buddhism and Ecology,1992; Glassman, Bearing Witness, 1998; Kotler, The Engaged Buddhist Reader, 1996; Queen, Engaged Buddhism in the West, 2002; Tucker, & Williams, Buddhism and Ecology, 1999.

39. Schumacher, 1975, op cit. Pp. 56-57. Payutto, P. 1992. Buddhist Economics. Geocities.com/Athens/Academy/9280/econ.htm, ch. 4, p. 7. 40. Aitken, R. 1984. The Mind of Clover. San Francisco, CA.: North Point Press., p. 171. 41. Macy, J. 1991a. Mutual Causality in Buddhism and General Systems Theory: The Dharma of Natural Systems. Buffalo, NY.: SUNY Press. 42. Inoue, S. 1999. A new economics to save the earth: A Buddhist perspective. Journal of Japanese Trade and Industry. March/ April 43. Ibid. pp. 2-3. 44. Ibid. pp. 4-5. 45. Glassman, B. & Fields, R. 1996. Instructions to the Cook: A Zen Masters Lessons in Living a Life that Matters. New York, NY.: Bell Tower, p. 111. 46. Inoue, 1997, op cit. P. 98. 47. Inoue, 1997, pp. 93-104

204 48. Swearer, D. 1997. The hermeneutics of Buddhist ecology in contemporary Thailand: Buddhadasa and Dhammapitaka. In Tucker, M. & Williams, D. (Eds.) Buddhism and Ecology. Cambridge, MA.: Harvard University Press, p. 37. 49. Ibid. p. 340. 50. Sponberg, A. 1997. Green Buddhism and the hierarchy of compassion In Tucker, M. & Williams, D. (Eds.) Buddhism and Ecology. Cambridge, MA.: Harvard University Press. 51. Hoffman, A. 1997. From Heresy to Dogma: An Institutional History of Corporate Environmentalism. San Francisco: New Lexington Press. 52. Porter, M. 1991. Americas green strategy. Scientific American, April: 168. Porter, M. & van der Linde, C. 1995. Green and competitive. Harvard Business Review, 73: 120134, 196. 53. Starik, M., Marcus, A., & Ilinitch, A. 2000. Special research forum: The management of organizations in the natural environment. Academy of Management Journal, 43: 539-547. 54. Starik, M., Marcus, A., & Ilinitch, A. 2000. Special research forum: The management of organizations in the natural environment. Academy of Management Journal, 43: 539-547, pp. 167-171. 55. see Schwenk, 2002, Ch. 3 for a discussion of this perspective. 56. Schwenk, 2002, Ch. 3.

57. Schwenk, C. 1997. The case for weaker leadership. Business Strategy Review, 8, 4-9.

205 CHAPTER 7: THE FUTURE OF AMERICAN BUDDHISM AND BUSINESS Introduction Buddhism encourages respect for the principle of impermanence, which suggests that the future is likely to evolve in ways that are unpredictable today. However, as I used to tell my students when we talked about analyzing and forecasting the business environment, forecasting is not about predicting the future. It is about reflecting on the future and trying to figure out how to realize your own vision of a desirable future. Therefore, this final chapter deals with my own speculations about a desirable future for American Buddhism. The Emergence of an American form of Buddhism At the beginning of this book, I outlined the ways Buddhism changed as it moved from India to China to Japan. How will it change as it becomes integrated into American culture and the American economy? In this concluding chapter, I will speculate on important issues that will face American Business and American Buddhism in the future. When Buddhism reached China, believers came to stress those aspects of the religion that were consistent with Taoism and Confucianism. When it reached Japan, Buddhism was colored by Japanese nationalism. I believe that two aspects of American culture will shape Buddhism in the years to come, pragmatism and democracy. To discusses these concepts adequately, I will have to draw on recent scholarly work on the practice of Buddhism in America.1 These books are all well-researched, thoughtful, and thought-provoking. I found Prebishs Luminous Passage and Seagers Buddhism in America most useful.2 Pragmatism is a school of philosophy that originated in America and is often considered an American trait. It was first espoused in the late 1800s by C. S. Pierce and William James and was

206 developed by John Dewey and others. It emphasizes practical consequences in evaluating the meaning of a proposition or theory. Odin argues that there are similarities between Zen and American Pragmatism, and has discussed the implications for American Buddhist practice.3 The pragmatic spirit has already lead to the modification of some Buddhist traditions to make the practice more consistent with American capitalism. For example, as I observed earlier, American Zen Buddhism puts less stress on company loyalty and more on individual creativity in business than Japanese Zen. There is also evidence that American democracy and its emphasis on participative decision-making has lead to democratization and an increasing role for laymen and laywomen in American Buddhist groups. This is illustrated by the organizational changes in the Order of Buddhist Contemplatives started by Roshi Jiyu Kennett. In 1976, she wrote, . . . the pupil must have absolute faith in the teacher, otherwise he will always be criticizing his actions in his own mind. . . Obviously, then, without blind faith in the teacher, the pupil will get nowhere. . . .4 However, these teachings reflect the practices in Japanese temples at the time when she was training in Japan. Later, she relaxed her views on the nature of the authority of the teacher. Teachers within the OBC now emphasize that faith is not blind and that trainees should question the actions of teachers if they violate basic Buddhist doctrine. It seems likely that the same issues will arise in the context of Buddhism and business practice. Business will have to deal with questions of democratization in the workplace and the increased workplace diversity that comes from increased participation by women. Buddhism may

207 help those in business cultivate attitudes of humility and mindfulness that will enable them to make productive use of this increased diversity and participation. The increasing role of women in American Buddhism will mean that issues of gender will become more central to Buddhist institutions and practice. I hope that there will also be an increased recognition of the historical role of women in Buddhism. A number of recent books, including Women of Wisdom, dealing with the lives of great female teachers throughout the history of Tibetan Buddhism5, Meetings with Remarkable Women, which profiles contemporary American Buddhist teachers from several traditions, and two collections of essays on women in Buddhism,6 Not Mixing Up Buddhism7 and Women in Buddhism8 (Paul, 1985) have documented the work of women in the historical development and current practice of Buddhism. Weaver & Agle, writing in the Academy of Management Journal, have summarized research on the effects of what they call religious self-identity on business decision-making and ethics. According to these authors, religious identities create role expectations that shape ethical responses to business problems.9 This point is especially important in the context of Buddhism and American business because role expectations have not yet been defined; they are in the process of development. The religious identities of Buddhists will be shaped by the Buddhism of the past but they will also be shaped by American history, economics, and commerce. In Japan, the association of Zen and nationalism has lead to questionable behavior on the part of Zen monks and priests. In America, the association of Zen and the entrepreneurial and pragmatic spirit has lead to questionable behavior on the part of American Zen practitioners. The cases of Richard Baker at the San Francisco Zen Center and Bernard Glassman of the Graystone Mandala, illustrate some of the moral ambiguities involved in Buddhist commercial activities.

208 Mindful Businesses? Is mindfulness something that only individuals can have or can organizations and groups be mindful? Karl Weick and his colleagues have argued that some kinds of organizations process information more mindfully than others.10 They studied a group of what they called High Reliability Organizations (HROs) that showed five characteristics of that promote mindfulness. 1. Preoccupation with failure. 2. Reluctance to simplify interpretations. 3. Sensitivity to operations. 4. Commitment to resilience. 5. Under specification of structures. I will describe each of these characteristics as a basis for discussing whether they are consistent with Buddhist conceptions of mindfulness and whether organizations can be mindful. Preoccupation with Failure Failure is an important precondition for learning in organizations, as demonstrated by Sitkin.11 Mindful organizations are very concerned with turning rare failures into opportunities for improvement. Weick et al. say that they do this by following three procedures, treating all failures as windows on the health of the entire system, thoroughly analyzing all near failures, and by focusing on the liabilities of success.12 High Reliability Organizations members are constantly looking for possible failures and are even encouraged to report errors they have made that might cause future problems. This preoccupation with failure is very different from the attitude found in many successful companies, where overconfidence leads to over reliance on old ways of doing things and old assumptions, blinding organizational members to developing problems.13

209 Reluctance to Simplify Interpretations Over time, members of organizations develop common world views, assumptions, frameworks, or mindsets that guide them in interpreting new situations. These mindsets simplify the task of interpretation. However, this process often results in overly simplistic interpretations of new situations. In HROs, members make efforts to avoid this oversimplification by encouraging adversarial reviews, by hiring new members who do not share the assumptions of the existing members, and by seeking out information that may refute common assumptions. Sensitivity to Operations It is easy to fall into routines that reduce our attentiveness to day-to-day operations. HROs attempt to ensure that members remain mindfully attentive to operations by attempting to ensure that they are not overloaded with responsibilities or pressures for production. Commitment to Resilience HROs discourage rigidity by attempting to create opportunities for improvisation and experimentation. They also foster what Weick calls an ambivalence toward the applicability of past practice.14 Under specification of Structure Organizational structures and procedures can encourage mindlessness and restrict flows of information needed for interpreting new events. HROs adopt what Weick et al. call anarchic modes of functioning.15 They predict that these types of organizations will become more common in the future as the environment becomes more complex and uncertain. In other words, mindful organizing and decision-making will happen more often in the businesses of the future. I hope they are right. In a later book, Weick and Sutcliffe provide additional recommendations to executives for managing mindfulness at their own firms. These include; cultivating humility, encouraging

210 alternative frames of reference, strengthening fantasy as a tool for managing the unexpected, developing skepticism, and welcoming uncertainty.16 I agree with Weick and his colleagues that a reluctance to simplify interpretations and a commitment to resilience are essential qualities for an organization in adapting to change. Businesses with these qualities will be better able to draw on the knowledge of their members, or what we might call the organizational knowledge structure. In an earlier book, I talked about knowledge structures in organizations and described how they can be enriched through procedures designed to increase mindful identification and mindful decision making.17 I believe the HROs described by Weick and his colleagues would have enriched knowledge structures. However, I see such structures as necessary in some environments (complex, uncertain, rapidlychanging) but not necessarily helpful in others. I am not sure they are the wave of the future. I believe business organizations can be designed to encourage mindful decision-making but this is a more limited form of mindfulness than Buddhism advocates. Managers can be mindful about specific decisions while mindlessly accepting the goals of the top executives of the business. For example, a firms accountants may mindlessly accept the CEOs goal of inflating earnings through aggressive or creative accounting and then mindfully attempt to find the most effective way of reaching this goal. Though some business practices encourage mindfulness on the job, Buddhists have personal responsibility to practice mindfulness at all times. This kind of mindfulness may make it necessary to question the basic goals of a business (or, in my own case, a university). There are no businesses that are organized in such a way that mindfulness is impossible. People who work in organizations that do not have the characteristics of HROs can still pursue

211 mindfulness within their jobs even if their organizations do not encourage it. Most Buddhists will probably not work in HROs yet, as books like Chop Wood, Carry Water indicate, mindfulness is possible in the most routine manual labor. Mindful Identification in the Business Organizations of the Future Because of the simultaneous development of communications technology and global trade, it seems likely that businesses in the future will include more electronically-moderated networks that span geographic regions and organizational boundaries. In these networks, individuals from different regions or organizations form virtual teams that may work together without meeting face-to-face. Virtual teams of this kind have been described by Townsend, DeMarie, & Hendrickson, 18 virtual organizations of the kind described by DeSanctus & Monge,19 and virtual communities as discussed by Rhinegold.20 All these involve individuals working together on problems but interacting primarily through electronic media. Virtual teams have become very common in business for a variety of reasons. One reason is the creation of various kinds of global alliances and knowledge-sharing networks. Dyer & Nobeoka have provided a case study of one such network and emphasized the importance of developing a shared network identity.21 In Chapter 3, I discussed craving, the birth of the self, and the process of forming organizational identities. Identity is a critical issue in virtual teams, organizations, and communities. Since Buddhism deals with issues of organizational identity, it might provide the basis for recommendations about how to manage identity in these organizations. Identity is an

212 issue all types of teams must deal with but it is especially difficult in virtual affiliations because of the difficulty of coordinating behavior in them. Promoting identification is vital in virtual teams and organizations because it is the means by which they achieve coordination and control. In traditional organizations, supervisors monitor performance and enforce rules to achieve coordination. However, this may be ineffective and even dysfunctional when employees are dispersed in a variety of workplaces. Organizational identification leads to coordination through its influence on employee expectations and motivations, which is why it is an effective means by which a virtual organization can accomplish its goals and insure performance.22 Many people think that everything possible should be done to strengthen individuals identification with problem-solving teams, particularly if they are virtual teams. However, Castells gives a number of examples of groups using the internet to create excessive, mindless identification and commitment among their members, including the American patriot militia.23 Mindless identification involves submerging your uniqueness within the identity of the group. Mindful identification involves commitment to the welfare of the group along with the determination to express your unique perspective in group problem-solving. How can Buddhist businesspeople encourage mindful identification? One suggestion would be to assist individuals in defining their identities within the group. Some people suggest that members of virtual teams provide personal information (including visual information like photos) to provide a sense of community and increase their identification with the team. This may be useful but it may also lead to an increase in the potential for excessive identification. However, having people share information and stories about their involvement with the team task or

213 problem may be a way of defining individuals team identities in terms of the characteristics of the team task. The book Virtual Teams recommends that teams develop clear identities including team names, logos, statements of purpose or mission statements, and clearly-defined goals. However, these practices may alienate some members and narrow the teams focus prematurely. Jarvenpaa & Leidner conducted studies of teams that enhanced identity-based trust through the establishment of roles. In low trust teams, the roles were geared around non-task functions (such as leader, secretary, reviewer of rejected messages) but the roles on the high trust teams revolved around the task. In virtual teams, members have less of a tendency to view individuals from different cultures as dissimilar because differences in verbal interpersonal communication styles and in appearance are less salient. Thus, identification-based trust can be developed quickly in global virtual teams, with the shared identity revolving around a common task.24 Buddhists working in business in the future will be increasingly dealing with decentralized teams of differing backgrounds. Identity is crucial in dealing with virtual teams, organizations, and communities. Properly designed teams increase the knowledge and competencies of their members. More importantly, they can help transform work into training. The best way to describe the transformation of work into training is to use a story common to both Buddhism and Christianity, the story of the prodigal son. Prodigal Sons, East and West If rising affluence frees more people from the anxiety of working only for survival and the temptations to work out of greed, more people in the workplaces of the future will be able to

214 pursue work as training. Both Buddhism and Christianity advise us to reduce our own anxiety, craving and clinging in work by remembering that we already have all we need. This point is illustrated by the parables of the prodigal son; a simple story in which a son foolishly leaves his father and is reunited with him. I have summarized Buddhist and Christian versions of these parables in the appendix at the end of this chapter. The text of the Christian story is from the King James Version of the Bible and the Buddhist version is from the Lotus Sutra, a sutra from the Mahayana tradition. Both parables address the feeling that life is unsatisfactory, and that we are in a wretched state symbolized by poverty, disease, and hunger. Both stories also emphasize that the sons wretched condition is the result of his own free choice. It seems that accepting responsibility for our condition is the first step in sincere training in both traditions. Finally, the son is dramatically reconciled with the father in both tales. These two stories offer fundamentally different explanations of the cause of the separation of the son and father, and how they are brought back together. In the biblical story, the separation results from the sons sin against the father. He wasted his inheritance and this was an offense that caused him shame and made it necessary for him to repent and return to beg his fathers forgiveness. In the Buddhist story, however, the son has forgotten who he is. His return to his father is a less straightforward process. Instead of simply turning away from his former life and returning to his father, the son returns to his father by accident, looking for wages. The fathers task is not to forgive his son and welcome him back, but to bring him to his senses. To do this, the father uses skillful means, not revealing the whole truth to his son at once.

215 However, there are also many similarities between the parables. One has to do with the role of work. They both portray the work done by the son for hire as difficult and degrading. While doing this work, the son experiences poverty and want. This may symbolize the feelings of those who work only to satisfy their own craving. However, the son is actually wealthy, and the work he will do on his own land is to preserve the inheritance given by his father. He will also be able to use his wealth to help those who are dependent on him, including employees, friends, and family, as well as giving to charity. Work done for these reasons is ennobling, not degrading. It seems that this parable also relates to the experience we have as trainees. Many of us begin training in Buddhism as hired servants begin work, with the expectation that we will be paid for our efforts (through insights, peace of mind, increased ability to deal with lifes vicissitudes, etc.) Those who do approach training this way receive a more than adequate return on the investment of their time. However, there is also a surprise in store for sincere trainees, as there was for the prodigal son. They can come to see training as an expression of their true nature rather than as a technique for achieving peace of mind. The presence of this parable in two religions that are so fundamentally different suggests that it reflects a common human experience. The son, through his own foolishness, is living in want though he has a wealthy parent as a source of sustenance. This reflects an important truth about work, that we must remember while working that we have everything we need. We work to express gratitude for all that we have been given. This attitude is expressed by Iizuka in his discussion of his own efforts to repay his debt of gratitude to his parents and others through his work. He attributes his success in Japanese business partly to his efforts to work with sincere gratitude.25 Davis (1992, p. 157) states that

216 Japanese Buddhist morality is based on the assumption that when an individual is born, he has already received benefits from his parents, the Buddha, the emperor, and his ancestors. As time goes on, he receives further benefits from parents, teachers, employers, and others. He should feel gratitude for these benefits and has a moral obligation to repay those who have provided them. Buddhists have four duties based on the four benefits given by, 1. Parents, 2. The emperor (or government), 3. The Three Treasures (Buddha, Dhamma, and the Sangha), and 4. All sentient beings. A persons work is a way of repaying these benefits and Davis claims that this forms the basis for the Japanese Buddhist work ethic.26 To me, this view suggests that we should reconsider the question, How can I work more productively and manage more effectively? Perhaps it is more appropriate to ask, How can I express gratitude more effectively in my work? Conclusions At the risk of sounding melodramatic, I will say that this is a unique moment in history. We are participating in the development of a uniquely American form of Buddhism that will have profound implications for business practice. I do not believe Buddhism makes any universal recommendations for managers, workers, or economic policies. Buddhism allows each individual to deal with the effects of past karma. Because each individual has different karma, Buddhism has different implications about how to use work to deal with kamma for each individual. Each individual must mindfully work out the implications of Buddhism for his or her own career. It may be that the main contribution of Buddhism to management is its emphasis on mindfulness. Mindfulness, in turn, leads to the development of skillful means for reducing suffering through economic activity.

217 Mindfulness and skillful means are especially important when considering economic policy. Sadly, many of the people who have written on this topic have not thought carefully about the consequences of the Buddhist economic policies they recommend. While it is clear that the Buddha said we should attempt to reduce suffering, it is not clear how this can best be done. Those who claim it is clear do a disservice to Buddhism. The Buddha himself had to make the choice between being a great king or a worldredeemer. By rejecting kingship, he rejected the approach of attempting to relieve suffering through changing economic and political institutions. He addressed organizational issues only reluctantly, and in the Vinaya Pitaka he made rules for the order in response to problems as they arose, rather than setting out a complete list of rules or commandments at the beginning. Further, he made no such rules for laypeople, in contrast to Mahavira, founder of the Jains (and many other religious reformers in his time and our own). Rather, he gave guidelines, in the Sigalaka Sutta and elsewhere, for applying basic Buddhist insights to commercial activities. Sincere Buddhists are divided on the question of whether we should try to institutionalize Buddhist virtues. Those in favor of institutionalizing these virtues say that business promotes beliefs and behavior that are at odds with Buddhism. Those who oppose them say that our institutions do not hinder us from practicing Buddhist virtues. They feel that those who are sincere can engage in capitalist economies despite the fact that capitalist institutions may promote greed. Most Buddhists agree on the value of simple living and the perils of thoughtless and wasteful consumption. However, they disagree on whether we should use the force of law to make people avoid wasteful consumption.

218 I believe this disagreement can be a positive force. Through mindfully considering and discussing the issues outlined in this book, Buddhists in America will gradually develop a Buddhism that emphasizes pragmatism and democracy; a Buddhism that is uniquely suited to its new home.

219 APPENDIX 5: PRODIGAL SONS, EAST AND WEST Buddhism and Christianity have radically different, perhaps even incompatible tenets. However, they both address common human experience and express similar wisdom on a wide range of topics. They also share common parables. One of these, the parable of the prodigal son, gives insights into how we should regard our work. This parable can be found in both the Lotus Sutra and in the Bible. First, I will give the story as told in the King James version of the Bible (Luke 15: 11-32): 11 A certain man had two sons: 12 And the younger of them said to his father, Father, give me the portion of goods that falleth to me. And he divided unto him his living. 13 And not many days after the younger son gathered all together, and took his journey into a far country, and there wasted his substance with riotous living. 14 And when he had spent all, there arose a mighty famine in that land; and he began to be in want. 15 And he went and joined himself to a citizen of that country; and he sent him into his fields to feed swine. 16 And he would fain have filled his belly with the husks that the swine did eat; and no man gave unto him. 17 And when he came to himself, he said, How many hired servants of my fathers have bread enough and to spare, and I perish with hunger! 18 I will arise and go to my father, and will say unto him, Father, I have sinned against heaven, and before thee. 19 And am no more worthy to be called thy son; make me as one of thy hired servants. 20 And he arose, and came to his father. But when he was yet a great way off, his father saw him, and had compassion, and ran, and fell on his neck, and kissed him. 21 And the son said unto him, Father, I have sinned against

220 heaven, and in thy sight, and am no more worthy to be called thy son. 22 But the father said to his servants, Bring forth the best robe, and put it on him; and put a ring on his hand, and shoes on his feet: 23 And bring hither the fatted calf, and kill it and let us eat, and be merry: 24 For this my son was dead, and is alive again; he was lost, and is found. And they began to be merry. The next parable is from the Lotus Sutra, a central scripture in the Mahayana school of Buddhism. Apparently, this story was supposed to have taken place at a time when people lived longer than they do today. An ignorant, immature young man left his father and wandered aimlessly through many countries for over fifty years. Meanwhile, his father searched everywhere for him, until he finally grew tired. He settled in an unnamed city, where he built a house, enjoying the pleasures of life. But the father could not stop greaving over his son. All day long he kept thinking, The time of my death is approaching; my foolish son has been gone for over fifty years. What shall I do will all these things in my storehouses? Meanwhile, the son had become a homeless person, looking for food and clothing from city to city, from country to country, sometimes getting something, sometimes nothing; famished, weak, and gaunt, covered with scabs and sores. His sufferings caused him to forget his father. By chance, he came to the city where his father lived and was hired to work at his fathers estate. When he got there he saw a rich old man sitting in front of a great jeweled curtain on a lion seat surrounded by his attendants.

221 The unfortunate son thought, This must be a king or one of royal rank. Alarmed, he thought, If I stay here too long, he may press me into forced labor, so he ran off to find some other place to work. At that time, the father, on his lion seat, saw his son from a distance, immediately recognized him and instantly ordered servants to pursue him and bring him back. When they caught up to him and took hold of him, the son cried in alarm, and fainted. The father realized his son had lost his memory and would not believe he was his father, so he let the son go and sent other men, one-eyed, squat, common, and unimposing, and told them to go to the son and offer him a job removing dirt and rubbish, at double the normal wages. The son, hearing this, was happy at his good luck and came with them. The father was amazingly patient, and gradually gave the son more responsibility and money and after twenty years, had made him a central part of the household staff. All the father ever said was, You are like a son to me. When he felt his sons mind had finally become receptive to the truth, he asked the sun to plan a party for all his relatives, and told him to prepare for a surprise. At the party, the father made the announcement, This is my son, who left me fifty years ago and came back by chance. Since I saw my son arrive, twenty years have passed. Now I will give him his inheritance. All that I have, houses and people, I entirely give to him. He is free to use them as he sees fit. The fortunate son thought about his former poverty and unexpected wealth, and rejoiced greatly.27

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