Michael Jacopino

EE-586 Final

4/30/2011

1.) a.) In wireless communications, fading is deviation of the attenuation that a carrier-modulated telecommunication signal experiences over certain propagation media. The fading may vary with time, geographical position and/or radio frequency, and is often modeled as a random process. A fading channel is a communication channel that experiences fading. In wireless systems, fading may either be due to multipath propagation, referred to as multipath induced fading, or due to shadowing from obstacles affecting the wave propagation, sometimes referred to as shadow fading. In wireless telecommunications, multipath is the propagation phenomenon that results in radio signals reaching the receiving antenna by two or more paths. Causes of multipath include atmospheric ducting, ionospheric reflection and refraction, and reflection from water bodies and terrestrial objects such as mountains and buildings. The effects of multipath include constructive and destructive interference, and phase shifting of the signal. This causes Rayleigh fading. The standard statistical model of this gives a distribution known as the Rayleigh distribution. Shadow fading occurs when a large obstruction such as a hill or building obscures the main signal path between the transmitter and receiver. In frequency-selective fading, the coherence bandwidth of the channel is smaller than the bandwidth of the signal. Different frequency components of the signal therefore experience decorrelated fading.

Multipath Model

Shadow Fading b.) To combat frequency selective fading a delay spread can be used. Due to multipath reflections, the channel impulse response of a wireless channel looks likes a series of pulses. In practice the number of pulses that can be distinguished is very large, and depends on the time resolution of the communication or measurement system. In system evaluations, we typically prefer to address a class of channels with properties that are likely to be encountered, rather than one specific impulse response. Therefore we define the (local-mean) average power which is received with an excess delay that falls within the interval (T, T + dt). Such characterization for all T gives the "delay profile" of the channel. The delay profile determines the frequency dispersion, that is, the extent to which the channel fading at two different frequencies f1 and f2 is correlated.

c.) A form of multipath propagation interference that arises when digital transmissions are used is known as Inter Symbol Interference, ISI. This arises when the delay caused by the extended path length of the reflected signal. If the delay is significant proportion of a symbol, then the receiver may receive the direct signal which indicates one part of the symbol or one state, and another signal which is indicating another logical state. If this occurs, then the data can be corrupted. One way of overcoming this is to transmit the data at a rate the signal is sampled, only when all

the reflections have arrived and the data is stable. This naturally limits the rate at which data can be transmitted, but ensures that data is not corrupted and the bit error rate is minimised. To calculate this the delay time needs to be calculated using estimates of the maximum delays that are likely to be encountered from reflections. Using signal processing techniques, a variety of methods can be used to overcome the problems with multipath propagation and the possibilities of interference.

2.) a.,b.) Global System for Mobile Communications, or GSM, is the world's most popular standard for mobile telephone systems. The GSM Association estimates that 80% of the global mobile market uses the standard. This ubiquity means that subscribers can use their phones throughout the world, enabled by international roaming arrangements between mobile network operators. GSM differs from its predecessor technologies in that both signaling and speech channels are digital, and thus GSM is considered a second generation (2G) mobile phone system. This also facilitates the wide-spread implementation of data communication applications into the system. The GSM standard has been an advantage to both consumers, who may benefit from the ability to roam and switch carriers without replacing phones, and also to network operators, who can choose equipment from many GSM equipment vendors. GSM also pioneered low-cost implementation of the short message service (SMS), also called text messaging, which has since been supported on other mobile phone standards as well. GSM is a cellular network, which means that mobile phones connect to it by searching for cells in the immediate vicinity. There are five different cell sizes in a GSM networkmacro, micro, pico, femto and umbrella cells. The coverage area of each cell varies according to the implementation environment. Macro cells can be regarded as cells where the base station antenna is installed on a mast or a building above average roof top level. Micro cells are cells whose antenna height is under average roof top level; they are typically used in urban areas. Picocells are small cells whose coverage diameter is a few dozen metres; they are mainly used indoors. Femtocells are cells designed for use in residential or small business environments and connect to the service providers network via a broadband internet connection. Umbrella cells are used to cover shadowed regions of smaller cells and fill in gaps in coverage between those cells. The modulation used in GSM is Gaussian minimum-shift keying

(GMSK), a kind of continuous-phase frequency shift keying. In GMSK, the signal to be modulated onto the carrier is first smoothed with a Gaussian low-pass filter prior to being fed to a frequency modulator, which greatly reduces the interference to neighboring channels (adjacentchannel interference). Universal Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS) is one of the third-generation (3G) mobile telecommunications technologies, which is also being developed into a 4G technology. The first deployment of the UMTS is the release99 (R99) architecture. It is specified by 3GPP and is part of the global ITU IMT-2000 standard. The most common form of UMTS uses WCDMA (IMT Direct Spread) as the underlying air interface but the system also covers TDCDMA and TD-SCDMA (both IMT CDMA TDD). Being a complete network system, UMTS also covers the radio access network (UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access Network, or UTRAN) and the core network (Mobile Application Part, or MAP), as well as authentication of users via SIM cards. Unlike EDGE (IMT Single-Carrier, based on GSM) and CDMA2000 (IMT Multi-Carrier), UMTS requires new base stations and new frequency allocations. However, it is closely related to GSM/EDGE as it borrows and builds upon concepts from GSM. Further, most UMTS handsets also support GSM, allowing seamless dual-mode operation. Therefore, UMTS is sometimes marketed as 3GSM, emphasizing the close relationship with GSM and differentiating it from competing technologies. The name UMTS, introduced by ETSI, is usually used in Europe. Outside of Europe, the system is also known by other names such as FOMA or WCDMA. In marketing, it is often referred to as 3G or 3G+. With Mobile Application Part, UMTS uses the same core network standard as GSM/EDGE. This allows a simple migration for existing GSM operators. However, the migration path to UMTS is still costly: while much of the core infrastructure is shared with GSM, the cost of obtaining new spectrum licenses and overlaying UMTS at existing towers is high. The CN can be connected to various backbone networks like the Internet, ISDN. UMTS (and GERAN) include the three lowest layers of OSI model. The network layer (OSI 3) includes the Radio Resource Management protocol (RRM) that manages the bearer channels between the mobile terminals and the fixed network, including the handovers.

c.) Packet switching is a digital networking communications method that groups all transmitted data regardless of content, type, or structure into suitably-sized blocks, called packets. Packet switching features delivery of variable-bit-rate data streams (sequences of packets) over a shared network. When traversing network adapters, switches, routers and other network nodes, packets are buffered and queued, resulting in variable delay and throughput depending on the traffic load in the network.

Packet switching contrasts with another principal networking paradigm, circuit switching, a method which sets up a limited number of dedicated connections of constant bit rate and constant delay between nodes for exclusive use during the communication session. In case of traffic fees, for example in cellular communication, circuit switching is characterized by a fee per time unit of connection time, even when no data is transferred, while packet switching is characterized by a fee per unit of information.

Two major packet switching modes exist; connectionless packet switching, also known as datagram switching, and connection-oriented packet switching, also known as virtual circuit switching. In the first case each packet includes complete addressing or routing information. The packets are routed individually, sometimes resulting in different paths and out-of-order delivery. In the second case a connection is defined and pre-allocated in each involved node before any packet is transferred. The packets include a connection identifier rather than address information, and are delivered in order.

Packet mode communication may be utilized with or without intermediate forwarding nodes (packet switches). In all packet mode communication, network resources are managed by statistical multiplexing or dynamic bandwidth allocation in which a communication channel is effectively divided into an arbitrary number of logical variable-bit-rate channels or data streams. Each logical stream consists of a sequence of packets, which normally are forwarded by the multiplexers and intermediate network nodes asynchronously using first-in, first-out buffering. Alternatively, the packets may be forwarded according to some scheduling discipline for fair queuing or for differentiated or guaranteed quality of service, such as pipeline forwarding or

time-driven priority (TDP). Any buffering introduces varying latency and throughput in transmission. In case of a shared physical medium, the packets may be delivered according to some packet-mode multiple access scheme.

3.) a.) GPRS, General Packet Radio Service , is a packet data communications system sprung out of afixed telecommunications networks. GPRS is the mainstream technology of the worldwide mobile communications transition to 3rd generation, it's a very important and indispensable approach and landmark in the migration from second generation to the third generation (3G) mobile networks. We call it the 2.5G mobile communications technology. GPRS is particularly suitable for discontinuous , unexpected or frequent , a small quantity of data transfer, and suitable for sporadic mass data transfer. GPRS could be used within the PLMN or the packet data transfer between GPRS network and the external packet data network(IP, X.25). GPRS offers the seamless connection to the present data network. With GPRS, the information is split into separate packets before being transmitted .GPRS facilitates instant connections and high immediacy whereby information can be sent or received immediately as the need arises . Moreover, connection speed of GPRS facilities could reach from slower than 100bps to maximum 171.2kbps, that is sufficient for needs range from low-speed SMS transfer or highspeed enhanced web browsing. All kinds of applications less than one time slot could take advantage from GPRS, because different users could share one time slot. The basic working principle of GPRS is: With GPRS, the information is split into separate but related packets before being transmitted and reassembled at the receiving end, instead of using present fixed data transition. Which facilitates sharing network resources between users, and allow the serviceproviders optimize existing facilities and create new income source.

b.) GSM EDGE cellular technology is an upgrade to the existing GSM / GPRS networks, and can often be implemented as a software upgrade to existing GSM / GPRS networks. This makes it a particularly attractive option proving virtually 3G data rates for a small upgrade to an existing GPRS network.

GSM EDGE evolution can provide data rates of up to 384 kbps, and this means that it offers a significantly higher data rate than GPRS. There are a number of key elements in the upgrade from GSM or GPRS to EDGE. The GSM EDGE technology requires a number of new elements to be added to the system:
y

Use of 8PSK modulation: In order to achieve the higher data rates within GSM EDGE, the modulation format can be changed from GMSK to 8PSK. This provides a significant advantage in being able to convey 3 bits per symbol, thereby increasing the maximum data rate. This upgrade requires a change to the base station. Sometimes hardware upgrades may be required, although it is often simply a software change.

Base station: Apart from the upgrade to incorporate the 8PSK modulation capability, other small changes are required to the base station. These are normally relatively small and can often be accomplished by software upgrades.

Upgrade to network architecture: GSM EDGE provides the capability for IP based data transfer. As a result, additional network elements are required. These are the same as those needed for GPRS and later for UMTS. In this way the introduction of EDGE technology is part of the overall migration path from GSM to UMTS. The two main additional nodes required for the network are the Gateway GPRS Service Node (GGSN) and the Serving GPRS Service Node (SGSN). The GGSN connects to packet-switched networks such as the Internet and other GPRS networks. The SGSN provides the packetswitched link to mobile stations.

Mobile stations: It is necessary to have a GSM EDGE handset that is EDGE compatible. As it is not possible to upgrade handsets, this means that the user needs to buy a new GSM EDGE handset.

It is worth summarizing the key parameters of GSM EDGE cellular technology.

Multiple Access Technology Duplex Technique Channel Spacing Modulation Slots per channel

FDMA / TDMA FDD 200 kHz GMSK, 8PSK 8

Frame duration Latency Overall symbol rate Overall modulation bit rate Radio data rate per time slot Max user data rate per time slot Max user data rate when using 8 time slots

4.615 ms Below 100 ms 270 k symbols / s 810 kbps 69.2 kbps 59.2 kbps (MCS-9) 473.6 kbps **

c.) EDGE is newer then GPRS has a higher max data rate, a better latency, similar channel spacing, overall symbol rate, and similar multiple access technology.

4.) a.) GGSN is short for gateway GPRS support node it is the gateway between the GPRS wireless data network and other external packet data networks such as radio networks, IP networks, or private networks. GGSN provides network access to external hosts wishing to communicate with mobile subscribers (MS). SGSN on the other hand is responsible for the delivery of data packets from and to the mobile stations within its geographical service area. Its tasks include packet routing and transfer, mobility management (attach/detach and location management), logical link management, and authentication and charging functions. The location register of the SGSN stores location information (e.g., current cell, current VLR) and user profiles (e.g., IMSI, address(es) used in the packet data network) of all GPRS users registered with this SGSN. Common SGSN Functions
  

Detunnel GTP packets from the GGSN (downlink) Tunnel IP packets toward the GGSN (uplink) Carry out mobility management as Standby mode mobile moves from one Routing Area to another Routing Area

 

Billing user data

b.) The UMTS network architecture can be divided into three main elements:

1. User Equipment (UE): The User Equipment or UE is the name given to what was previous termed the mobile, or cell phone. The new name was chosen because the considerably greater functionality that the UE could have. It could also be anything between a mobile phone used for talking to a data terminal attached to a computer with no voice capability. 2. Radio Network Subsystem (RNS): The RNS is the equivalent of the previous Base Station Subsystem or BSS in GSM. It provides and manages the air interface for the overall network. 3. Core Network: The core network provides all the central processing and management for the system. It is the equivalent of the GSM Network Switching Subsystem or NSS. The core network is then the overall entity that interfaces to external networks including the public phone network and other cellular telecommunications networks.

5.) The LTE architecture can be divided into a few main elements.


MME (Mobility Management Entity): The MME is the key control-node for the LTE access-network. It is responsible for idle mode UE (User Equipment) tracking and paging procedure including retransmissions. It is involved in the bearer activation/deactivation process and is also responsible for choosing the SGW for a UE at the initial attach and at time of intra-LTE handover involving Core Network (CN) node relocation. It is responsible for authenticating the user (by interacting with the HSS). The Non Access Stratum (NAS) signaling terminates at the MME and it is also responsible for generation and allocation of temporary identities to UEs. It checks the authorization of the UE to camp on the service providers Public Land Mobile Network (PLMN) and enforces UE roaming restrictions. The MME is the termination point in the network for ciphering/integrity protection for NAS signaling and handles the security key management. Lawful interception of signaling is also supported by the MME. The MME also provides the control plane function for mobility between LTE and 2G/3G access networks with the S3 interface terminating at the MME from

the SGSN. The MME also terminates the S6a interface towards the home HSS for roaming UEs.

SGW (Serving Gateway): The SGW routes and forwards user data packets, while also acting as the mobility anchor for the user plane during inter-eNodeB handovers and as the anchor for mobility between LTE and other 3GPP technologies (terminating S4 interface and relaying the traffic between 2G/3G systems and PGW). For idle state UEs, the SGW terminates the DL data path and triggers paging when DL data arrives for the UE. It manages and stores UE contexts, e.g. parameters of the IP bearer service, network internal routing information. It also performs replication of the user traffic in case of lawful interception.

PGW (PDN Gateway): The PDN Gateway provides connectivity from the UE to external packet data networks by being the point of exit and entry of traffic for the UE. A UE may have simultaneous connectivity with more than one PGW for accessing multiple PDNs. The PGW performs policy enforcement, packet filtering for each user, charging support, lawful Interception and packet screening. Another key role of the PGW is to act as the anchor for mobility between 3GPP and non-3GPP technologies such as WiMAX and 3GPP2 (CDMA 1X and EvDO).

HSS (Home Subscriber Server): The HSS is a central database that contains user-related and subscription-related information. The functions of the HSS include functionalities such as mobility management, call and session establishment support, user authentification and access authorization. The HSS is based on pre-Rel-4 Home Location Register (HLR) and Authentication Center (AuC).

ANDSF (Access Network Discovery and Selection Function): The ANDSF provides information to the UE about connectivity to 3GPP and non-3GPP access networks (such as Wi-Fi). The purpose of the ANDSF is to assist the UE to discover the access networks in their vicinity and to provide rules (policies) to prioritize and manage connections to these networks.

ePDG (Evolved Packet Data Gateway): The main function of the ePDG is to secure the data transmission with a UE connected to the EPC over an untrusted non-3GPP access. For this purpose, the ePDG acts as a termination node of IPsec tunnels established with the UE.

b.) The IP Multimedia Subsystem (IMS) is an architectural framework for delivering Internet Protocol (IP) multimedia services. It was originally designed by the wireless standards body 3rd Generation Partnership Project (3GPP), as a part of the vision for evolving mobile networks beyond GSM. Its original formulation (3GPP R5) represented an approach to delivering "Internet services" over GPRS. This vision was later updated by 3GPP, 3GPP2 and TISPAN by requiring support of networks other than GPRS, such as Wireless LAN, CDMA2000 and fixed line. To ease the integration with the Internet, IMS uses IETF protocols wherever possible, e.g. Session Initiation Protocol (SIP). According to the 3GPP,[1] IMS is not intended to standardize applications but rather to aid the access of multimedia and voice applications from wireless and wire line terminals, i.e. create a form of fixed-mobile convergence (FMC). This is done by having a horizontal control layer that isolates the access network from the service layer. From a logical architecture perspective, services need not have their own control functions, as the control layer is a common horizontal layer. However in implementation this does not necessarily map into greater reduced cost and complexity. Alternative and overlapping technologies for access and provisioning of services across wired and wireless networks include combinations of Generic Access Network, soft switches and "naked" SIP. It is easier to sell services than to sell the virtues of "integrated services", but additionally the task to sell an IMS based on a single service is also difficult as there are often (cheaper) alternatives to creating and deploying that particular service.

SIP is used in IMS as a protocol. The Session Initiation Protocol (SIP) is an IETF-defined signaling protocol, widely used for controlling multimedia communication sessions such as voice and video calls over Internet Protocol (IP). The protocol can be used for creating, modifying and terminating two-party (unicast) or multiparty (multicast) sessions consisting of one or several media streams. The modification can involve changing addresses or ports, inviting more participants, and adding or deleting media streams. Other feasible application examples include

video conferencing, streaming multimedia distribution, instant messaging, presence information, file transfer and online games. SIP was originally designed by Henning Schulzrinne and Mark Handley starting in 1996. The latest version of the specification is RFC 3261 from the IETF Network Working Group. In November 2000, SIP was accepted as a 3GPP signaling protocol and permanent element of the IP Multimedia Subsystem (IMS) architecture for IP-based streaming multimedia services in cellular systems. The SIP protocol is an Application Layer protocol designed to be independent of the underlying transport layer; it can run on Transmission Control Protocol (TCP), User Datagram Protocol (UDP), or Stream Control Transmission Protocol (SCTP). It is a text-based protocol, incorporating many elements of the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) and the Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP).

d.) LTE is often described as a way to "flatten" the 3G network architecture due to the fact that now with radio access data rates increasing, the capabilities of the supporting wired network elements radio controllers, packet gateways, transmission, and the IP core are equally critical to network performance. Nowhere is this seen more clearly than in mobile data services. The emergence of 3G High Speed Packet Access (HSPA), HSPA+ and next-generation LTE (a.k.a. 4G) access, is enabling an entire new class of mobile broadband services and generating traffic volumes that are unsustainable using the classic hierarchical network architectures originally designed for mobile voice and low-speed data. To efficiently deliver mobile broadband services, operators require a network infrastructure that simultaneously provides lower costs, lower latency, and greater flexibility. The key to achieving this goal is the adoption of flat, all-IP network architectures. With the shift to flat IP architectures, mobile operators: y Reduce the number of network elements in the data path to lower operations costs and capital expenditure y Partially decouple the cost of delivering service from the volume of data transmitted to align infrastructure capabilities with emerging application requirements y Minimize system latency and enable applications with a lower tolerance for delay; upcoming latency enhancements on the radio link can also be fully realized

Evolve radio access and packet core networks independently of each other to a greater extent than in the past, creating greater flexibility in network planning and deployment

Develop a flexible core network that can serve as the basis for service innovation across both mobile and generic IP access networks

Create a platform that will enable mobile broadband operators to be competitive, from a price/performance perspective, with wired networks