Orthography of ML u = vowel /u/ or consonant /v/; e.g.

uult = vult v = if used at all, initial place (1st letter) for v & u; e.g. vnde = unde. w = uu merged; e.g. wlt = uult (=vult) j = sometimes used as initial substitute of i; e.g. juvenis = iuvenis); and as second element in ii; e.g. filij = filii; vij = vii (seven). Universal ML Usage (i.e. almost always) (after 1100): CL = ae & oe; ML = e; e.g. puelle = puellae; letus = laetus; celum = coelum CL = after vowel -ti-; ML = -ci-; e.g. racio = ratio. (except after s & x; e.g. mixtio). CL = y; ML = i; e.g. lira = lyra Regional ML Usage (i.e. sometimes) single-to-double consonants; double-to-single consonants; e.g.: asumpti = assumpti; (vice versa) stillus = stilus (=stylus). x = s; s = x; e.g. melox = melos; iusta = iuxta Loss of initial h; e.g. ac = hac; abeo = habeo Add h; e.g. honus = onus; hostium = ostium Add h to indicate diaeresis (to separate syllables in pronunciation); e.g. trahicio = traicio Sometimes -p- is placed after -m-; e.g. dampnum = damnum; ympnus = hymnus; yemps = hiems -gn- varies in regional pronunciationand spelling follows; e.g. innis (Italian), ingnis (English) = ignis CL = -c- before e or i; ML = s; e.g. sessio = cessio; silicium = cilicium CL = sc before e or i; ML = s; e.g. silicet = scilicet; sedula/cedula = schedula. CL = di; ML = z; e.g. zabulus = diabolus; zeta = dieta (=diaeta). CL = final -d; ML = -t (unvoicing); e.g. haut = haud; set = sed; nequit = nequid (& nequid = nequitsometimes). -v- & -b- can be used interchangeably at times; e.g. laudavit = laudabit (yeahvery annoying to distinguish between perfect and future). Interchange ph and f; e.g. fisis = physis; phisiculare = fissiculare. Before (a, o, u) c ch or k; e.g. charus = carus

ct & t are interchangeable; e.g. autor = auctor; arctus = artus. (st, xt) & xst are interchange; e.g. esto/exto = exsto quu qu; e.g. equs = equus (=aequus) Morphology In general, there are a lot of slips and variationsthe most prominent being that (ML) isto, illo = (CL) isti, illi (dat. sng.); & (ML) une = (CL) uni (fem. dat. sng); & toto = toti (Masc. dat. sng.)but nothing entered the general morphology that would shock a Classical writer. Syntax (1) In CL subjunctive is already used in all cum clauses, in ML it is also in dum clauses. (2) ML: gerund as abl. of attendant circumstances; e.g. ambulando loquebamur = we talked while walking. CL would translate = We talked by walking (instrumental abl.). (3) CL: Perfect passive = past part. + esse; e.g. iussus est = he was ordered. ML: esse will gain its literal tense; so iussus est = he is ordered; thus, perfect passive required past tense of esse; so iussus erat/fuit = he was ordered. (4) CL: infinitive is neuter indeclinable verbal noun; e.g. hoc ridere meum = this laughter is mine. And it was used only in nom. & acc. ML: uses are extended: (a) used after a preposition; e.g. pro velle = in accordance with ones wish; pro posse = according to ones ability; (b) sometimes used with abl.; e.g. meo videre = in my view; (c) infinitive of purpose used liberally (CL just with verbs of motion) (5) CL: lacked definite article, but ML writers were used to using it in vernacular. ML: ille & ipse = definite article (the); quidam = indefinite article (a, an). (6) ML usage of reflexives se and suus is often careless; i.e. basically opposite of CL; e.g. using suus in a sentence where it refers to someone in a previous sentence, not anyone in the present sentence; basically, then, the reflexives are regular pronouns or reflexives. (7) Reported statements (verbs of saying, thinking, discovering, etc): CL uses accusative + infinitive; e.g. dixi me abiturum esse (I said that I was going to leave). Vulgate: uses quod, quia, or quoniam as a conjunction that between verb and the object; e.g. scio quia per ignorantiam fecistis (I know that you all acted in

ignorance). ML took this from the Vulgate. Also, they used subjunctive or indicative with these clauses. (8) Preposition Usage. ML uses prepositions a lot more where CL used case endings. a. ad = at; ad = simple dat. after verbs of speaking (speaking to someone). b. de = includes many functions of the genitive and Englishs of; can mean some e.g. misit de oleo (he threw [some] of the oil. c. iuxta and secundum = according to (an author). d. Infra often gets the meaning of intra = inside of e. abinde = thereafter, from there f. ab olim = from long ago g. ad modicum = a little h. ad tunc = then i. ad statim = immediately j. de facili = easily k. de raro = rarely l. ex tunc = from then m. in brevi = briefly n. in antea = before o. per sic ut; per sic quod = on condition that (9) Verbs with awkward cases. a. ML utor can take acc.; b. iubeo can take dat.; c. noceo, doceo, impero can take acc.; d. impersonal verbs of feeling such as pudet, penitet, piget vary in case of the person (10) Purpose Clauses. In addition to ut or qui with the subjunctive, as in CL, ML uses quatinus and quo + subjunctive. a. quominus = lest (CL: ne) in negative purpose clauses b. quod (after sic, ita, in tantum) = that (for CL ut) introducing purpose clauses (11) Valeo can be equivalent to CL possum, be able.

(12) (legal prose) facit ad is used to indicate support given by a quod clause (subject of facit) to a preposition governed by ad. i.e. facit = supported e.g. ad quod facit quod srcibit Augustinus: this is supported by what Augustine writes. [literally: to this, what Augustine writes supports.]