Handbookofactionresearch

ParticipativeInquiryandPractice PeterReason HilaryBradbury editors SagePublications Introduction: Inquiry&participationinsearchofaworldworthyofhumanaspiration

PeterReasonandHilaryBradbury Idonotseparatemyscientificinquiryfrommylife.Formeitisreallyaquestforlife,to understandlifeandtocreatewhatIcalllivingknowledgeknowledgewhichisvalidfor thepeoplewithwhomIworkandformyself.MarjaLiisaSwantz Knowledgeisalwaysgainedthroughactionandforaction.Fromthisstartingpoint,to questionthevalidityofsocialknowledgeistoquestion,nothowtodevelopareflective scienceaboutaction,buthowtodevelopgenuinelywellinformedactionhowto conductanactionscience. BillTorbert Iamnotasocialscientistinterestedinmoreparticipatoryresearch,butaneducatorand activistexploringalternativeparadigmresearchasonetoolinthemultifacetedstruggles foramorejust,lovingworld. PatMaguire Practicalknowledge,knowinghow,istheconsummation,thefulfilment,ofthe knowledgequest...itaffirmswhatisintrinsicallyworthwhile,humanflourishing,by manifestingitinaction. JohnHeron Theaimofparticipatoryactionresearchistochangepractices,socialstructures,and socialmediawhichmaintainirrationality,injustice,andunsatisfyingformsofexistence. RobinMcTaggart Participatoryresearchisaprocessthroughwhichmembersofanoppressedgroup or communityidentifyaproblem,collectandanalyseinformation,andactupontheproblem inordertosolutionsandtopromotesocialandpoliticaltransformation. DanielSelener ActionResearchcanhelpusbuildabetter,freersociety. DavyddGreenwoodandMortenLevin Wemustkeepontryingtounderstandbetter,changeandreenchantourpluralworld. OrlandoFalsBorda

Action,participationandexperience
InthisIntroduction,wedrawtogethersomeofthemajorthreadsthatformthediversepractices ofactionresearch,toprovideaframeworkthroughwhichthereadercanapproachthisvolume. Weknowthatourreadershipisvaried.Youmaybenewtoactionresearch,wantingtoknow
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whetherithasanythingtoofferyou.Youmayalreadybeanactionresearchpractitioner,maybe withallegiancetooneoftheschoolsincluded(ormaybenotincluded),inthisvolume,and wonderinghowwehavepresentedthekindofworkyouarecommittedto.Youmaybelongtoan academicdisciplinewhichdrawsonmoreorthodoxformsofinquiry,wonderinghowthisaction researchanimalcanbeunderstoodasscience.Andofcourseyoumaybedownrighthostiletothe ideaofactionresearch,andarereadingthistoshowhowmisguidedtheeditorsandcontributors are! Thereisnoshortanswer tothequestion Whatisactionresearch? Butletussayasaworking definition,tobeexpandedoninthisIntroductionandindeedtherestofthisvolume,thataction researchisaparticipatory,democraticprocessconcernedwithdevelopingpracticalknowingin thepursuitofworthwhilehumanpurposes,groundedinaparticipatoryworldviewwhichwe believeisemergingatthishistoricalmoment.Itseekstobringtogetheractionandreflection, theoryandpractice,inparticipationwithothers,inthepursuitofpracticalsolutionstoissuesof pressingconcerntopeople,andmoregenerallytheflourishingofindividualpersonsandtheir communities. Whatwewanttosaytoallourreadersisthatweseeactionresearchasapracticeforthe systematicdevelopmentofknowingandknowledge,butbasedinaratherdifferentformfrom traditionalacademicresearchithasdifferentpurposes,isbasedindifferentrelationships,ithas differentwaysofconceivingknowledgeanditsrelationtopractice.Thesearefundamental differencesinourunderstandingofthenatureofinquiry,notsimplymethodologicalniceties.As wehavestudiedthecontributionstothisvolumeoverthesepasttwoyearsandmore,we concludethat,whilethefieldofactionresearchishugelyvariedandthereareallkindsof choicestobemadeinpractice,therearefivebroadlysharedfeatureswhichcharacterizeaction researchwhichweshowinFigure1. Figure1abouthere Aprimarypurposeofactionresearchistoproducepracticalknowledgethatisusefultopeoplein theeverydayconductoftheirlives.Awiderpurposeofactionresearchistocontributethrough thispracticalknowledgetotheincreasedwellbeingeconomic,political,psychological, spiritualofhumanpersonsandcommunities,andtoamoreequitableandsustainable relationshipwiththewiderecologyoftheplanetofwhichweareanintrinsicpart. Soactionresearchisaboutworkingtowardpracticaloutcomes,andalsoaboutcreatingnew formsofunderstanding,sinceactionwithoutreflectionandunderstandingisblind,justastheory withoutactionismeaningless.Andmorebroadly,theorieswhichcontributetohuman emancipation,totheflourishingofcommunity,whichhelpusreflectonourplacewithinthe ecologyoftheplanetandcontemplateourspiritualpurposes,canleadustodifferentwaysof beingtogether,aswellasprovidingimportantguidanceandinspirationforpractice(fora feministperspectivewouldinviteustoconsiderwhetheranemphasisonactionwithouta balancingconsiderationofwaysofbeingisrathertooheroic). Aswesearchforpracticalknowledgeandliberatingwaysofknowing,workingwithpeoplein theireverydaylives,wecanalsoseethatactionresearchisparticipativeresearch,andall participativeresearchmustbeactionresearch.Humanpersonsareagentswhoactintheworldon thebasisoftheirownsensemakinghumancommunityinvolvesmutualsensemakingand collectiveaction.Actionresearchisonlypossiblewith,forandby personsandcommunities, ideallyinvolvingallstakeholdersbothinthequestioningandsensemakingthatinformsthe research,andintheactionwhichisitsfocus. Sinceactionresearchstartswitheverydayexperienceandisconcernedwiththedevelopmentof livingknowledge,inmanywaystheprocessofinquiryisasimportantasspecificoutcomes. Goodactionresearchemergesovertimeinanevolutionaryanddevelopmentalprocess,as individualsdevelopskillsofinquiryandascommunitiesofinquirydevelopwithincommunities
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ofpractice.Actionresearchisemancipatory,itleadsnotjusttonewpracticalknowledge,butto newabilitiestocreateknowledge.Inactionresearchknowledgeisaliving,evolvingprocessof comingtoknowrootedineverydayexperienceitisaverbratherthananoun.Thismeansaction researchcannotbeprogrammaticandcannotbedefinedintermsofhardandfastmethods,butis, inLeotards(1979)sense,aworkofart. Thesefiveinterdependentcharacteristicsofactionresearchemergefromourreflectionson practiceinthisdevelopingfield.Togethertheyimplyan actionturninresearchpracticewhich bothbuildsonandtakesusbeyondthelanguageturn ofrecentyears:thelanguageturndrew ourattentiontothewayknowledgeisasocialconstructiontheactionturnacceptsthis,andasks ustoconsiderhowwecanactinintelligentandinformedwaysinasociallyconstructedworld. LaterinthisIntroductionweworktowardthearticulationofaparticipatoryworldviewasa groundingframeworkforthesecharacteristics,andshowhowthisdrawsourattentiontothe kindsofchoicesthatactionresearchpractitionersneedtomakeinthecourseoftheirwork, choiceswhichhaveimplicationsforthequalityandvalidityoftheirinquiries. Westartfromtheseassertionswhichmayseemcontentioustosomeoftheacademic community,whileatthesametimeobvioustothoseofamoreactivistorientationbecausethe purpose ofknowledgemakingissorarelydebated.Theinstitutionsofnormalscienceand academia,whichhavecreatedsuchamonopolyontheknowledgemakingprocess,placea primaryvalueonpureresearch,thecreationofknowledgeunencumberedbypracticalquestions. Incontrast,theprimarypurposeofactionresearchisnottoproduceacademictheoriesbasedon actionnorisittoproducetheoriesaboutactionnorisittoproducetheoreticalorempirical knowledgethatcanbeappliedinactionitistoliberatethehumanbody,mindandspiritinthe searchforabetter,freerworld.

Thediverseoriginsofactionresearch
Wedoubtifitispossibletoprovideonecoherenthistoryofactionresearch.Manywriterson actionresearchtraceitsoriginsbacktothesocialexperimentsofKurtLewininthe1940s, throughthesociotechnicalexperimentsbegunattheTavistockInstituteandinparticulartheir applicationtopracticesofsocialdemocracyandorganizationalchange.(Greenwood&Levin, 1998seealsoGustavsen,Chapter1andPasmore,Chapter3).Whileweareclearlyindebtedto thistraditionthereareotherswhichdeserveacknowledgement. Otherswillseeoriginsofactionresearchinthecontemporarycritiqueofpositivistscienceand scientism,inthemovementtoseeknewepistemologiesofpracticewhileallthecontributions inourGroundingssectionaddressquestionsofthenatureofknowledge,theyareexploredin particularbyPark,Chapter7,Kemmis,Chapter8,andLincoln,Chapter11aswellaslaterin thisIntroduction.EikelandarguesinChapter13thattheseepistemologicalconcernscanbe tracedbacktoAristotlesworkonpraxis&phronesis.Otherswillpointoutthatimportant originscanbefoundincultureswhichEurocentricscholarshipcanoverlook.OrlandoFalsBorda askedinanemailexchange wherearetheMayaAristotleswhodiscoveredtheZeroandtaughthowtobuildthe wonderfulpyramidsinYucatn?Howaretheirintellectualandtechnicalcontributions takenintoaccountinourdiscoursesandnarratives? PyrchandCastello(Chapter37)similarlyarguetheimportanceofindigenoustraditionsandtheir currentexpressionin"grassrootspostmodernism"(Esteva&Prakash,1998).AsHallpointsout (Chapter15)participatoryformsofinquiryaimedatsolvingpracticalproblemshaveexisted foreverinhumancultures,andhavecontributedtoalllifesupportinghumanactivitiesfromplant andanimalhusbandrytopoliticaldemocracy. WecanalsotracetheevolutionofactionresearchbacktotheMarxistdictumthattheimportant thingisnottounderstandtheworldbuttochangeit,throughthetheorizingofGramsciand
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othersandtheeducationalworkofFreire,totheparticipatoryresearchpracticeofthoseother workingforliberationoftheoppressedandunderprivilegedof thisworld(FalsBorda,Chapter2 Hall,Chapter15Selener,1997).Thisistrulyalivingmovementworldwideforwhichnoone personorcommunitycanclaimownership:weseetheinspirationofFreiremeetingthe pioneeringworkofMarjaLiisaSwantzandhercolleaguesinTanzania(Chapter39),the movementforpopulareducationasexpressedforexampleattheHighlanderCentre(Lewis, Chapter35Horton&Freire,1990)andtheSocietyforParticipatoryResearchinAsia(Bhattand Tandon,Chapter28).Morerecently,throughpracticessuchasparticipatoryruralappraisal (Chambers,1997)practicesofparticipativeresearchhasbecomepartofdevelopmental institutionsgovernments,NGOsandsupranationalbodiessuchastheWorldBankwhich raisesimportantquestionsaboutpeoplesparticipationinrelationtoinstitutionalizedpower (GaventaandCornwall,Chapter6). Otherwriterspointfirsttothefundamentalimportanceofliberatingperspectivesongenderand raceasafoundationforactionresearch.AsMaguirepointsout(Chapter5),feminismsintheir fullestsensechallengethestructuresandpracticesofdominationinallfields.Andthefeminist practiceofconsciousnessraisingcaninitselfbeseenasaformofexperientialactioninquiry. AndBell (Chapter4)showshowtherootsofactionresearchweredeeplyembeddedin progressiveresearchonrace. Otherrootsofactionresearchlieinthepracticesofexperientiallearningandpsychotherapy.T grouptrainingandencountergroupsareattheirbestformsofmutualinquiryintothehereand nowdevelopmentofgroupprocesses(Schein&Bennis,1965).AsJohnRowanpointsoutin Chapter10,someformsofpsychotherapy,particularlythoseinformedbyexistentialand humanistperspectives,cansimilarlybeseenasmutualinquiries,ascanavarietyofformsof selfhelpgroupssuchascocounselling.InEnglandhumanisticapproachestolearningand changeledtoexperimentswithlearningcommunitiesbasedinhumanisticeducationwhich directlyinformedthedevelopmentofcooperativeinquiry(Heron,1971).Allthisinteractedwith theevolvingpracticesoforganizationaldevelopment,whichmanywouldcharacterizeasaform ofactionresearchinwhichtheconsultant'sroleistofacilitatereflectiveinquirywithinthe organization,forwhichScheincoinedthetermclinicalinquiry(Chapter21)andSengeand Scharmerdescribeasthedevelopmentofacommunityoflearning(Chapter22). Whilesomeapproachestoactionresearchhaveremainedresolutelysecular,othershaveseen somespiritualpracticesasinquiry(Torbert,Chapter23Bentz&Shapiro,1998).Thedisciplines ofmindfulnessexpressedinspiritualteachingsfromtheBuddhatoGurdjief,andinpractices suchasTaiChiandinsightmeditation,canmakeanimportantcontributiontoourunderstanding ofinquiryalthoughasHeron(Chapter32)arguesthattheseteachingandpracticesareoften nestedwithinauthoritarianpoliticalstructuresfromwhichtheymustbeliberated. Actionresearchhasbeenequallypromiscuousinitssourcesoftheoreticalinspiration.Ithas drawnonpragmaticphilosophy(LevinandGreenwood,Chapter9Greenwood&Levin,1998), criticalthinking(Kemmis,Chapter8Carr&Kemmis,1986),thepracticeofdemocracy (Gustavsen,Chapter1Toulmin&Gustavsen,1996),liberationistthought(FalsBorda,Chapter 2Selener,1997),humanisticandtranspersonalpsychology(Rowan,Chapter10Heronand Reason,Chapter16)constructionisttheory(Lincoln,Chapter11Ludema,Cooperriderand Barrett,Chapter17),systemsthinking(Flood,Chapter12PasmoreChapter3)andmore recentlycomplexitytheory(Reason&Goodwin,1999).Initsrefusaltoadoptonetheoretical perspectiveitcanbeseenasanexpressionofapostmodernsentiment,orasToulminmight haveit,areassertionofRenaissancevaluesofpracticalphilosophy: Since1945,theproblemsthathavechallengedreflectivethinkersonadeepphilosophical levelaremattersof practice:includingmattersoflifeanddeathThe"modern"focus onthewritten,theuniversal,thegeneral,thetimelesswhichmonopolizedtheworkof
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mostphilosophersafter1630isbeingbroadenedtoincludeonceagaintheoral,the particular,thelocalandthetimely.(Toulmin,1990:186.Emphasisinoriginal) Thediversityofsourcesthatinspireactionresearcharereflectedinthearenasinwhichaction researchastakenroot,whichrangefromtheproblemsofdevelopmentinthemajorityworldto questionsoforganizationalchangeintheminorityworldfrompracticeswhichenhanceinquiry asapersonalpracticeineverydaylifetoattemptstoengagewholesocietiesascommunitiesof inquiryfromintenselypracticalconcernssuchasthepreservationoflocalfisheriestoour experienceofnonordinaryrealities.Fromadisciplinaryperspectiveactionresearchpractices canbefoundincommunitydevelopment,organizationandbusiness,education,healthcareand medicine,socialwork,thehumansocial,psychologicalandtranspersonalsciences.

Actionresearch,paradigmsandworldviews
Wewillnowturntoexplorehowthecharacteristicsofactionresearchweidentifiedabovecan beseenasgroundedinaparticipatoryworldviewwhichwebelieveisemergingatthishistorical moment.Letussayagainthatthesecharacteristicsarenotsimplyquestionsofmethodology.To besure,wecanarguethattheyleadtobetter researchbecausethepracticalandtheoretical outcomesoftheresearchprocessaregroundedintheperspectiveandinterestsofthose immediately concerned,andnotfilteredthroughanoutsideresearcherspreconceptionsand interests.Butfarmorethanthat,whenweassertthepracticalpurposesofactionresearchandthe importanceofhumaninterestswhenwejoinknowerwithknowninparticipativerelationshipas wemoveawayfromoperationalmeasurementintoascienceofexperientialqualities(Reason& Goodwin,1999),weundercutthefoundationsoftheempiricalpositivistworldviewthathasbeen thefoundationofWesterninquirysincetheEnlightenment[Toulmin,1990#1436].Indoingthis, wearepartofthecurrentshiftfromamodern toapostmodern world,andweneedtoengage withthecurrentdebateaboutworldviewsandparadigms.Weneedtolookatthepractical consequencesofmodernismattheimplicationsofthelanguageturn whichhaspointedtothe importanceoflanguageincreatingourworldand,inourview,pointtoathirdpossibility,a participatoryworldview Manywritersandcommentatorsaresuggestingthatthemodernistworldvieworparadigmof Westerncivilizationisreachingtheendofitsusefullife.Itissuggestedthatthereisa fundamentalshiftoccurringinourunderstandingoftheuniverseandourplaceinit,thatnew patternsofthoughtandbeliefareemergingthatwilltransformourexperience,ourthinkingand ouraction.Wehave,sincetheReformation,thebeginningoftheeraofmodernscience,andthe IndustrialRevolutionmadeenormousstridesinourmaterialwelfareandourcontrolofourlives. Yetat thesametimewecanseethecostsofthisprogressinecologicaldevastation,humanand socialfragmentation,andspiritualimpoverishment.Soifwefailtomakeatransitiontonew waysofthinkingourcivilizationwilldeclineanddecay.GregoryBateson (1972a),oneofthe greatoriginalthinkersofourtime,arguedthatthemostimportanttaskfacingusistolearnto thinkinnewways:hewasdeeplyconcernedwithwhathecalledtheepistemologicalerrorsof ourtime,theerrorsbuiltintoourwaysof thinking,andtheirconsequencesforjusticeand ecologicalsustainability.Sothechallengeofchangingourworldviewiscentraltoourtimes. Thenotionofaparadigmorworldviewasanoverarchingframeworkwhichorganizesourwhole approachtobeingin theworldhasbecomecommonplacesinceThomasKuhnpublishedThe StructureofScientificRevolutions(1962).Kuhnshowedthatnormalscientificresearchtakes placewithinatakenforgrantedframeworkwhichorganizesallperceptionandthinking,which hecalledaparadigm.However,fromtimetotimetheparadigmitselfshiftsinarevolutionary fashionasanewperspectiveisdeemedtomakebettersenseoftheavailableknowledge.This ideaofaparadigminsciencecanbetransferredtotheworldviewofawholeculture,andthe notionthattheWesternworldviewmaybeinrevolutionarytransitionhasbeenpartof intellectualcurrencyforquiteawhile.
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ResearchintheWesthasbeenintegralwithapositivistworldview,aviewthatseesscienceas separatefromeverydaylifeandtheresearcherassubjectwithinaworldofseparateobjects.In thisperspective,thereisarealworldmadeupofrealthingswecanidentify,operatingaccording tonaturalcausallawswhichgoverntheirbehaviourlawswhichwecandeducebyanalysing theoperationofthecomponentparts.Mindandrealityareseparate:therationalhuman,drawing onanalyticalthoughtandexperimentalmethods,cancometoknowtheobjectiveworld.Thisis partofamodernworldviewbasedonthemetaphoroflinearprogress,absolutetruthandrational planning(Harvey,1990).Seekingobjectivetruth,themodernworldviewmakesnoconnection betweenknowledgeandpower.Westartfromtheposition,wellarguedelsewhere(seee.g. Lincoln&Guba,1985 Reason,1994),thatthispositivistworldviewhasoutliveditsusefulness: asHabermashasannounced,modernismisdead. EvolutionofWesternThought StephenToulmin'sCosmopolis(1990)providesahelpfulaccountoftheevolutionofWestern thoughtintoandthroughthemodernistperiodwhichpreparesthegroundforourdiscussionof anemergingparticipativeworldview.Toulmin'sargumentisthattheworldviewwhichemerged withDescartesandNewtonshouldnotbeseenasthefirstenlightened,rationalcorrectionof medievalsuperstition.Rather,thatthebreakwiththeMiddleAgesoccurredconsiderablyearlier, andthatsomeimportantoriginsofmodernitycanbetracedbacktolate16thcenturywritersin NorthernEurope.ToulminreferstothesewritersasRenaissancehumanists (herefers particularlytoMicheldeMontaigne).Theirtheoreticalinquirieswerebalancedagainst discussionsofconcrete,practicalissues (p.24),andthey displayedanurbaneopenmindness andskepticaltolerancethatledtohonestpracticaldoubtaboutthevalueof theoryforhuman experience (p.25).Theyarguedforatrustinexperience,thecouragetoobserveandreflect,a curiosityaboutthediversityofhumannature. Toulmingoesontoshowthatduringthe17thcentury thesehumanistinsightswerelost,and therewasahistoricalshiftfromapracticalphilosophybasedonexperienceandparticular practicalcasestoatheoreticalphilosophyconcernedwiththegeneral,thetimeless,andthe universal.Toulminarguesthatthishappenedatthattimebecausetheassassinationofthetolerant HenriIVofFrance,thedevastationbroughtaboutbythedogmaticreligiousstrugglesofthe ThirtyYearsWarandothereconomicandpoliticaldifficultiesbroughtaboutacounter Renaissanceademandforanewcertaintyinthefaceoftheseappallingcriseswhichneither humanisticskepticismnorreligiousdogmaseemedabletomeet.Thusthequestforcertainty whichledtothephilosophyofDescarteswasatimelyresponsetoaspecifichistorical challengethepolitical,socialandtheologicalchaosembodiedintheThirtyYearsWar. theCartesianprogramforphilosophysweptasidethereasonable uncertaintiesand hesitationsof16thcenturyskeptics,infavorofnew,mathematicalkindsof rational certaintyandproof[F]orthetimebeing,thatchangeofattitudethedevaluationofthe oral,theparticular,thelocal,thetimely,andthepracticalappearedasmallpricetopay foraformally rational theorygroundedonabstract,universal,timelessconceptsSoon enough,theflightfromtheparticular,concrete,transitory,andpracticalaspectsofhuman experiencebecameafeatureofculturallifeingeneral.(Toulmin,1990:7576) Toulmincontinuesthestorytothepresenttime.Asdifferentsciencesdeveloped,particularlyin the18thand19thcenturies,amorepragmaticandpracticalattitudedeveloped:eachnewfieldof inquiryhadtodiscoveritsownmethodology,andthehardedgesoftheEnlightenmentwere softened.ButjustasEuropewasbeginningtorediscoverthevaluesofRenaissancehumanism, therooffellinagainwiththeFirstWorldWar,theinequitablepeaceandtheGreatDepression. Rerenaissancewasdeferred:theintellectualresponsewasareturntotheformalismofthe ViennaCircleandthemonopolyoflogicalpositivism.Itwasnotuntilthe1960sthathumanism couldbereinventedandthedreamoffoundationalismi.e.thesearchforapermanentand
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uniquesetof authoritativeprinciplesforhumanknowledgeprovestobejustadream,which hasitsappealinmomentsofintellectualcrisis,butfadesawaywhenmattersareviewedundera calmerandclearerlight (p.174) AsToulminargues,thewayaheadistodrawon thetwinlegaciesoftheexactsciencesandthe humanities:aparticipativeworldviewdoesjustthis. Thelinguisticturn Thelinguisticandcognitiveturnhassweptthesocialsciencesandhumanitiessincethe1960s andbroughttomainstreamscholarshiptheKantiandifferentiationbetweentheworlditself(das Dingansich)andthephenomenon,orourinterpretedexperienceoftheworld.Thecognitive turnfocusedonthecognitivestructures(schemataormentalmodels)whichallowusmakesense oftheworld.Thelinguisticturn,rediscoveringNietzschessenseoflanguageasan armyof metaphors,lookedatthehithertounderestimatedroleoflanguageinourconstructionofour worldinwhichwearealwaysseekingtomake(orgive)sense.Itisnowdifficulttosustaina positionof naverealism. Inscholarlycirclesitisdifficulttosuggestthattheworldexists outsideourconstructionofit(Lincoln,Chapter11)(Gergen,1994Gergen,1999Schwandt, 1994Shotter,1993). Languageisauditioningforanaprioriroleinthesocialandmaterialworld.Moreover,it isarolethatcarriesconstitutionalforce,bringingfactsintoconsciousnessandtherefore being.Nolongerthenissomethinglikeanorganizationor,forthatmatter,anatomor quarkthoughttocomefirstwhileourunderstandings,modelsorrepresentationsofan organization,atomorquarkcomesecond.Rather,ourrepresentationsmaywellcome first,allowingustoseeselectivelywhatwehavedescribed(VanMaanen,1995:134) Wehaveprobablylefttheideaoflanguageasrepresentation behindus,evenifitdoeslingerin thediscourseofmodernismandpositivism.Sowemaysaythatsincethelinguisticandcognitive turns,wehavebecomemorefluentinunderstandingthedifferencebetweenphenomenaandour interpretationsofthem.Postmodernism,indeed,ispredicatedontheinsightaboutthis differentiation,andsometimesthreatenstocollapsethedistinctiononceagain.Nolongeristhe worldtobethoughtofasnaively outthere,butinextremeconstructionistpositionstheworldis evokedalwaysandonlyinadanceofsigns(Derrida,1981).Suchaworldperhaps,isonethatis only inhere. Butsurely,evenifphenomenasuchasgravityarenotdirectlyapprehended,but areunderstoodwithinaculturalcontextmediatedbylanguage,therearedeeperstructuresof reality (Berry,1999)whichlieunderandbehindthem. Thedeconstructivesentimentlaysbareourillusionsofanykindofcertaintyandholdsthatwe mustbesuspiciousofalloverarchingtheoriesandparadigmsincreduloustoward metanarratives,asLyotard(1979)putit.Itassertsthatthereisnoaccessiblerealitybehindthe text,theimmediateexpressionofhumanunderstandingwehaveinfrontofus.Sinceall understandingisrelative,despitetherangeofcompetingparadigmscurrentlyonthesocial sciencescene(Guba&Lincoln,1994Heron&Reason,1997Lincoln&Guba,inpress)there areintheendnofoundationonwhichtruthcanbesecurelylaid(Schwandt,1996),andthe postmodernperspectiveasksustodeconstruct andtransgress beyondourtakenforgranted assumptions,strategies,andhabits.AsLatherputsit weseemsomewhereinthemidstofashiftawayfromaviewofknowledgeas disinterestedandtowardaconceptualizationofknowledgeasconstructed,contested, incessantlyperspectivalandpolyphonic(Lather,1991:xx) Thepostmodernperspectivepointstotheresearcherscomplicityintheconstitutionoftheir objectsofstudy andtheinterestednatureofknowledgemaking(Cals&Smircich,1999).It alsoemphasizestheintimaterelationshipbetweenknowledgeandpower,howknowledge making,supportedbyvariousculturalandpoliticalforms,createsarealitywhichfavoursthose
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whoholdpower.Similarly,actionresearchersagreethatobjectiveknowledgeisimpossible, sincetheresearcherisalwaysapartoftheworldtheystudy,anditpointsoutthatknowledge makingcannotbeneutralanddisinterestedbutisapoliticalprocessintheserviceofparticular purposes,andonewhichhasbeeninstitutionalizedinfavouroftheprivileged(Hall,Gillette,& Tandon,1982).Thiscloseexaminationoftheroleoflanguageincreatingoursharedrealityisa greatimportancewithintheactionresearchmovement.Sinceactionresearchisconcernedwith thedevelopmentofdemocraticformsofknowledgeitisconcernedwiththewaysinwhich languageisusedintheserviceofthosewhoholdpowertodefinereality(GaventaandCornwall, Chapter6Lukes,1974).AsSelenerputsin Oneofthegreatestobstaclestocreatingamorejustworldisthepowerofthedominant hegemony,theideologicaloppressionwhichshapesthewaypeoplethink.(Selener, 1997:26) Inthisvolume,manycontributorsarguetheneedtoseethroughthedominantworldviewandits constructionofreality,andtocreatenewpossibilities:thisisparticularlyimportantinBells accountofinfusionoftheperspectivesfromraceintoactionresearch(Chapter4)andMaguires explorationofthesignificanceoffeministperspectives(Chapter5).Treleaven(Chapter24) showshowpoststructuralistperspectiveshelpedherdeepenherunderstandingoftheissuesof genderinhercollaborativeinquiry,andsuggesthowtheymightbeusedcreativelywithina collaborativeresearchproject However,fromtheperspectiveofactionresearchwefindthattheemphasisthatdeconstructive andpoststructuralistperspectivesplaceonthemetaphorof textislimiting.Thereisalotof concernwithdiscourse,text,narrative,withthecrisisofrepresentation,butlittleconcernforthe relationshipofallthistoknowledgeinaction.Forexample,Denzins(1997)fascinating explorationofinterpretiveethnographyisfullofreferencestotextandCalsandSmircich (1999)askustoconsiderhowthetextuality ofourwritingsdefinesthenatureofknowledge. Neitheraskwhatthetextisactuallyfor.AsLather,alsowritingwithinthepostmoderntradition pointsourThequestionofactionremainslargelyunderaddressedwithinpostmodern discourse (1991:12). Whiletheseperspectiveshelpusimmenselyinseeingthroughthemythofthemodernistworld, theydonothelpusmovebeyondtheproblemsithasproduced.IfweintheWestwerealienated fromourexperiencebytheseparationofmindandmatterintroducedbyDescartes,weareeven morealienatedifallwecandoiscircleroundvariousformsofrelativistconstruction:anysense ofaworldinwhichwearegroundeddisappears.Weareparticularlyconcernedaboutthisin thesetimesofapproachingecologicalcrisiswhenappreciatingourembeddednessinthemore thanhumanworld(Abram,1996)issocritical.Ourconcernisthatthedeconstructive postmodernsentimentwillexacerbate,ratherthanheal,themodernexperienceofrootlessness andmeaninglessness.Whileacknowledgingthepostmodernsuspicionsofmetanarrative,we believethatallinquiry,andalloflife,isnecessarilyframedbyaworldviewandindeedthatthe postmodern/poststructuralistperspectiveisjustsuchaworldview,basedonthemetaphorofthe worldastext.Weneedtofindawayofacknowledgingthelessonsofthelinguisticturnwhile notignoringthedeeperstructuresofreality,andproposeamorecreativeandconstructive worldviewcanbebasedonthemetaphorofparticipation

Towardaparticipatoryworldview
Theemergentworldviewhasbeendescribedassystemic,holistic,relational,feminine, experiential,butitsdefiningcharacteristicisthatitisparticipatory:ourworlddoesnotconsistof separatethingsbutofrelationshipswhichwecoauthor.Weparticipateinourworld,sothatthe realityweexperienceisacocreationthatinvolvestheprimalgivennessofthecosmosand humanfeelingandconstruing.Theparticipativemetaphorisparticularlyaptforactionresearch,
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becauseasweparticipateincreatingourworldwearealreadyembodiedandbreathingbeings whoarenecessarilyactingandthisdrawsustoconsiderhowtojudgethequality ofouracting. Aparticipatory worldviewplaceshumanpersonsandcommunitiesaspartoftheirworldboth humanandmorethanhumanembodiedintheirworld,cocreatingtheirworld.Aparticipatory perspectiveasksustobebothsituatedandreflexive,tobeexplicitabouttheperspectivefrom whichknowledgeiscreated,toseeinquiryasaprocessofcomingtoknow,servingthe democratic,practicalethosofactionresearch. Aparticipatoryviewcompeteswithboththepositivismofmoderntimesandwiththe deconstructivepostmodernalternativeandwewouldholdittobeamoreadequateandcreative paradigmforourtimes.However,wecanalsosaythatitalsodrawsonandintegratesboth paradigms:itfollowspositivisminarguingthatthereisareal reality,aprimevalgivennessof being(ofwhichwepartake)anddrawsontheconstructionistperspectiveinacknowledgingthat assoonasweattempttoarticulatethisweenteraworldofhumanlanguageandcultural expression.Anyaccountofthegivencosmosinthespokenorwrittenwordisculturallyframed, yetifweapproachourinquirywithappropriatecriticalskillsanddiscipline,ouraccountmay providesomeperspectiveonwhatisuniversal,andontheknowledgecreatingprocesswhich framesthisaccount. Thisplacesscientificworkourextraordinaryknowledgeabouttheworldweliveinwhichthat isderivedfromnaturalsciencesinanewlight.Ofcourse,someinthenaturalsciencesdrawon participativeperspectivestoinformtheirwork(Clarke,1996Goodwin,1999Ho,1998).But apartfromthis,aparticipativeworldviewenablesuswhereappropriatetodrawontechniques andknowledgeofpositivistscienceandtoframethesewithinahumancontext.Aparticipative medicalpractitionerdoesntthrowawaymedicaltraining,butdrawsonittoworkwith patients indiagnosisandhealing.Anecologistcandrawonhisorherscientificperspectivetoprovide villagerswithusefulinformationaboutlocalforestsandworkwiththemtowardbetter management.Scientistscan,andhave,claimedprivilegedknowledgetheycanalsosee themselvesasparticipants,withaparticularsetofskillsandinformation,withinawider knowledgedemocracy. Whileworldviewscanbesketchedoutinsimplecognitiveterms,theirnatureisfarricher:As Mumfordputit Everytransformationof[thehumanspecies]...hasrestedonanewmetaphysicaland ideologicalbaseorrather,upondeeperstirringsandintuitionswhoserationalised expressiontakestheformofanewpictureofthecosmosandthenature of[humanity] (Mumford,1957:179). Inseekingtoarticulatesomeofthesedeeperstirrings wewillsketchbelowthecharacteristics ofaparticipatoryworldview.Westartwithourintimationsoftheparticipatorynature ofthe givencosmoswhoseformisrelationalandecological.Sinceweareapartofthewholeweare alreadyengagedin practicalbeingandacting(Skolimowski,1994).Thusourscienceis necessarilyanactionscience,whichdrawsonaextendedepistemologies,andcontinually inquiresintothemeaningandpurpose ofourpractice.Thesedimensionsofaparticipatory worldview(showninFigure2)echothecharacteristicsofactionresearchweidentifiedearlier (Figure1).Theyalsoprovideabasisforjudgementsofqualityorvalidityinactionresearch, whichwetouchonbelowandexploreinmoredetailinourconcludingchapter. Figure2abouthere Onthenatureofthegivencosmos Atthecentreofaparticipatoryworldviewisaparticipatoryunderstandingoftheunderlying natureofthecosmosweinhabitandwhichwecocreate.Wecanonlypointtowardthisintuition

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here,drawingonLaszlos(1996:xx)evocativemetaphor,thatthecosmosisawhisperingpond, aseamlesswholeinwhichthepartsareconstantlyintouchwitheachother: Whereverscientistslookandwhatevertheylookat,theyseenatureactingandevolving notasacollectionofindependentparts,butasanintegrated,interacting,selfconsistent, andselfcreativewhole(Laszlo,inpreparation) Itisnowplausibletoconsiderthatthequantummetaphor,whichpointstospaceandtime transcendinginterconnectionsbetweenphenomena,isnotconfinedtothesubatomicworld,but isapplicabletothestructureofthelivingworld(Ho,1998),toconsciousness,andtothe evolutionofthecosmositself(Laszlo,inpreparation).Thissuggestswearelivingaspartofa cosmoswhichisfarmoreinterconnectedthanwehavehithertosuspected,acosmosofnonlocal correlationsandcoherence,organizedinwaysthatcannotbeexplainedeitherbyclassicalor systemicmodels.Laszloarguesthat evidenceforspaceandtimetranscendingconnectionsisaccumulating:thephenomena, investigatedbyphysicists,biologists,consciousnessresearchersandcosmologiststurn outtobenonlocallycorrelatedandcoherentlycoevolvingwholes.(Laszlo,in preparation) Further,panexperientialistphilosophers,developingtheprocessphilosophyofWhitehead, suggestthatmatterandconsciousnessarenotontologicallyseparate,butarecoeternal,mutually complementaryrealities(deQuincey,1999:23seealsoGriffin,1998)andthatMatterand psychealwaysgotogetherallthewaydown (deQuincey,1999:23,emphasisinoriginal) Mindandmatterarenotdistinctsubstances.TheCartesianerrorwastoidentifyboth matterandconsciousnessaskindsofsubstancesandnottorecognizethemasphasesina processthatmindisthedynamicforminherentinthematteritself.Mindistheself becoming,theselforganizationtheselfcreationofmatter.Withoutthis,mattercould neverproducemind.Consciousnessandmatter,mindandbody,subjectandobject, processandsubstancealwaysgotogether.Theyareaunity,anondualduality.(de Quincey,1999:24,inoriginal) AsGriffinpointsoutmostthoroughly,thispanexperientialistontologyradicallyconfrontsour assumptionsaboutthenatureofourworldwhichformodernistsandpostmodernistsalike assumesaseparationofmindandmatter.Whilepanexperientialistsareemphatically notarguing thatrocksareconsciousinthesamewaythatarehumans(Griffin,1998:95),they arearguinga formofrealityofwhichmindisanaturalpart (1998:79)Similarlythequantumphenomena suggestacommunicatinguniverseinwhichallthingsareininstantandenduring communicativeuniontruecommunionwitheachother (Laszlo,inpreparation). Thesesuggestionsarethestrangestthinginastrangeworld asLaszlopointsout.Theydonot leadtoananalyticparadigmanythingliketheclassicalNewtonianworldview,butan evolutionary,emergentandreflexiveworldviewinwhichthecosmosiscontinuallyselfordering andselfcreating.Withinthisperspective,humanpersonsarecentresofconsciousnessboth independentandlinkedinagenerativewebofcommunionbothwithotherhumansandwiththe restofcreation(Heron,1992).Ourrealityemergesthroughacocreativedanceofthehuman bodymindandthegivencosmos:whilethislatterisfundamentallypresentwecanonlyknowit throughourconstructsandsensitivities.Humanpersonsdonotstandseparatefromthecosmos, weevolvedwithitandareanexpressionofitsintelligentandcreativeforce.AsThomasBerry putsit, theuniversecarrieswithinitapsychicspiritualaswellasaphysicalmaterial dimensionthehumanactivatesthemostprofounddimensionoftheuniverse,its capacitytoreflectonandcelebrateitselfinconsciousselfawareness(Berry,1988:132).

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Weliveinaparticipatory world.Thereisaprimordialgivennessofbeinginwhichthehuman bodymindactivelyparticipatesinacocreativedancewhichgivesrisetotherealitywe experience.Subjectandobjectareinterdependent.Thusparticipationisfundamentaltothe nature ofourbeing,an ontologicalgiven (Heron,1996aHeron&Reason,1997).Aswearea partofthewholewearenecessarilyactorswithinit,whichleadsustoconsiderthefundamental importanceofthepractical. Onpracticalbeingandacting Giventhisfundamentalparticipationinthewholewehumanpersonsarealreadyengagedand thusarealreadyacting(Skolimowski,1994).Thusfortheactionresearcherpracticalknowingis thepurpose,theconsummation,thefulfilment,oftheknowledgequest[Heron,1996#24:34].All waysofknowingservetosupportourskillfulbeingintheworldfrommomenttomomentto moment,ourabilitytoactintelligentlyinthepursuitofworthwhilepurposes.Humaninquiryis necessarilypracticalandaparticipatoryformofinquiryisan actionscience. InarguingthiswearefollowingtheScottishphilosopherJohnMacmurray(1957),whoargued longagothatIdo ratherthan Ithinkistheappropriatestartingpointforepistemology(p.84). mostofourknowledge,andallourprimaryknowledge,arisesasanaspectof activitiesthathavepractical,nottheoreticalobjectivesanditisthisknowledge,itself anaspectofaction,towhichallreflectivetheorymustrefer(p.12). However,asMacmurrayalsopointedout,theconceptof actionincludesthedevelopmentof theorywhichmayilluminateouraction,guideitandprovideitwithmeaning: Inactingthebodyindeedisinaction,butalsothemind.Actionisnotblind...Action, then,isafullconcreteactivityoftheselfinwhichallourcapacitiesareemployed(p. 86). LevinandGreenwood(Chapter9Greenwood&Levin,1998)followDewey,Rortyandother pragmatistphilosopherstomakeaverysimilarpoint. Theconcernforthefullconcreteactivityoftheselfinwhichallourcapacitiesareemployed invitesustoarticulatefurtherthenatureofknowing.Italsoinvitesustoconsiderour relationshipwithotherswithwhomweact,anddirectsourattentiontoquestionsofwhatis worthwhile,whatvaluesandpurposeareworthyofpursuit.Weexplorethesequestionsinthe nextsections. Onthenatureofknowing Aparticipativeworldview,withitsnotionofrealityassubjectiveobjective,involvesanextended epistemology:wedrawondiverseformsofknowingasweencounterandactinourworld (Lincoln,Chapter11).AsEikelandpointsout(Chapter13)thisnotiongoesrightbackto Aristotle,whileinmoderntimesPolanyi(1962),describedclearlyhisconceptoftacit knowledge,atypeofembodiedknowhowthatisthefoundationofallcognitiveaction.He rejectedthenotionoftheobjectiveobserverinscienceoranyotherareaofinquiry,expressing hisbeliefinengagedpracticethatnecessarilyjoinsfactsandvaluesinaparticipatorymodeof understanding. Writingmorerecently,ShotterarguesthatinadditiontoGilbertRylesdistinctionbetween knowingthat andknowinghow thereisakindofknowledgeonehasonlyfromwithina socialsituation,agroup,oraninstitution,andthustakesintoaccount the othersinthesocial situation (Shotter,1993:7,emphasisinoriginal).ItissignificantthatShotterusuallyusesthe verbalform knowingofthethirdkind,todescribethis,ratherthanthenoun knowledge, emphasizingthatsuchknowingisnotathing,tobediscoveredorcreatedandstoredupin journals,butratherarisesintheprocessofliving,inthevoicesofordinarypeoplein conversation.
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Park(Chapter7),writinginthecontextofparticipatoryresearchanddrawingonthe emancipatorytraditionsofFreire(Freire,1970),Habermas(1972seealsoKemmis,Chapter8) andothers,arguesthatwemusttakean epistemologicalturn andthinkofcommunitytiesand criticalawareness,aswellasobjectiveunderstandingofreality,asformsofknowledge (p.**). Thusheexplores,relational andreflective,aswellasrepresentationalformsofknowledge. Representationalknowledgeprovidesexplanationthroughidentifyingtherelationshipbetween discreetvariables,orunderstandingthroughinterpretationofmeaning.Relationalknowledgeis thefoundationofcommunitylifeanditsdevelopmentfosterscommunitytiesaswellashelping createotherformsofknowledge.Reflectiveknowledgehastodowithnormativestatesinsocial, economicandpoliticalrealms,itconcernsavisionofwhatoughttobe,whatisrightandwhatis wrong,andarises,Parkargues,throughtheprocessofconsciousnessraising,conscientization. Fromafeministperspective,Belenky,Clinchy,Goldberger,andTarulewroteof womensways ofknowing (1986)whichdistinguishedbetweenconnectedandseparatedknowing:separated knowingadoptingamorecriticaleyeandplayingadoubtinggame,whileconnectedknowing startswithanempathic,receptiveeye,enteringthespiritofwhatisofferedandseekingto understandfromwithin.Feministscholarsgenerallyhaveemphasizedrelationalaspectsofboth knowing(e.g.Bigwood,1993)andofthepracticeofmanagement(Fletcher,1998Marshall, 1995). Torbert(Chapter23also1991)emphasizestheimportanceofaqualityofattentionwhich momenttomomentisabletointerpenetratefourterritoriesofattention:anintuitiveknowingof purposes,anintellectualknowingofstrategy,anembodied,sensuousknowingofone's behaviour,andan empiricalknowingoftheoutsideworld. HeronandReason(Chapter16seealsoHeron,1996a)arguethataknowerparticipatesinthe known,articulatingtheirworldinatleastfourinterdependentways:experientialknowing,is throughdirectfacetofaceencounterwithaperson,placeorthingitisknowingthrough empathyandresonance,thatkindofindepthknowingwhichisalmostimpossibletoputinto words presentationalknowing,growsoutofexperientialknowing,andprovidesthefirstformof expressionthroughstory,drawing,sculpture,movement,dance,drawingonaestheticimagery propositionalknowingwhichdrawsonconceptsandideas,andpracticalknowing,which consummatestheotherformsofknowinginactionintheworld. Whileallthesedescriptionsofextendedepistemologiesdifferindetail,theyallgobeyond orthodoxempiricalandrationalWesternviewsofknowing,andassert,intheirdifferentways,a multiplicityofwaysofknowingthatstartfromarelationshipbetweenselfandother,through participationandintuition.Theyasserttheimportanceofsensitivityandattunementinthe momentofrelationship,andofknowingnotjustasanacademicpursuitbutastheeverydayof actinginrelationshipandcreatingmeaninginourlives. Onrelationalecologicalform Aparticipatoryworldviewisapoliticalstatementaswellasatheoryofknowledge.Justasthe classicalCartesianworldviewemergedinpartfromthepoliticalsituationofthetime(Toulmin, 1990),andfounditsexpressionnotonlyinscienceandtechnology,butalsoinourpolitical structuresandorganizationalforms,soaparticipatoryworldviewimpliesdemocratic,peer relationshipsasthepoliticalformofinquiry. Thispoliticalformofparticipationaffirmspeoples rightandabilitytohaveasayindecisions whichaffectthemandwhichclaimtogenerateknowledgeaboutthem.Itassertstheimportance ofliberatingthemutedvoicesofthosehelddownbyclassstructuresandneocolonialism,by poverty,sexism,racism,andhomophobia.Throughoutthishandbookcontributorsfromall perspectiveshavearguedstronglytheconnectionsbetweenpowerandknowledge.

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DavidSeleneremphasizesthatwhileamajorgoalofparticipatoryresearchistosolvepractical problemsin acommunity,Anothergoalisthecreationofshiftsinthebalanceofpowerinfavor ofpoorandmarginalizedgroupsinsociety (Selener,1997:12).AndasGreenwoodandLevin assert,actionresearchcontributesactivelytoprocessesofdemocraticsocial change(Greenwood &Levin,1998:3). Thepoliticalimperativeisnotjustamatterofresearchersbeingconsiderateabouttheirsubjects oractingethically:itisaboutthedemocraticfoundationsofinquiryandofsociety.In1791Tom Painearguedthatitisspecioustothinkaboutgovernmentintermsofarelationshipbetween thosewhogovernandthosegovernedwhatisimportantisthelegitimacyoftheexistenceof governmentitself.Sincethepeopleexistedbeforethegovernment: Thefactthereforemustbe,thattheindividualsthemselves,eachinhisownpersonaland sovereignright,enteredintoacompactwitheachother toproduceagovernment:andthis istheonlymodeinwhichgovernmentshavearighttoarise,andtheonlyprincipleon whichtheyhavearighttoexist.(Paine,1791:123,emphasisinoriginal) Wecandrawdirectparallelsbetweenthelegitimacyofgovernmentandthelegitimacyof research.ToparaphrasePaineitisforpeoplethemselves,intheirownright,toenterinto agreementswitheachothertodiscoverandcreateknowledge,andthisistheonlyprincipleon whichresearchandinquiryhasarighttoexist. Sowhilewemaybeconcernedtoproduceknowledgeandactiondirectlyusefultoagroupof people,participationcanalsoempowerthematasecondanddeeperleveltoseethattheyare capableofconstructingandusingtheirownknowledge.Itenablesthem toseethroughwaysin whichpowerfulgroupsinsocietytendtomonopolizetheproductionanduseofknowledgefor theirownbenefit.Thusparticipationisalsoaprocessofconsciousnessraisingor conscientization andisthusan educativeimperative.Actionresearchisatitsbestaprocessthat explicitlyaimstoeducatethoseinvolvedtodeveloptheircapacityforinquirybothindividually andcollectively. Thispedagogyoftheoppressed,toborrowFreiresterm,mustbematchedbyapedagogyofthe privileged:inquiryprocesseswhichengagethoseinpositionsofpower,andthosewhoare simplymembersofprivilegedgroupsbasedongender,class,profession,ornation.Weneedto learnmoreabouthowtoexercisepowerandpositionlegitimatelyintheserviceofparticipative relationships,tofindwaysinwhichpoliticians,professionals,managerscanexercisepowerin transformingways(Torbert,1991),powerwithothersratherthanpowerover(SeeGaventaand Cornwall,Chapter6Park,Chapter7).Wealsoneedtofindwaysofliberatingourselvesfrom theconstraintsoftheWesternworldview. Relationshipsdonotonlymeanthosewithotherhumans,butalsowiththemorethanhuman world.Asweareincreasinglyawarethatthedamagethatisbeingdonetotheplanets ecosystemsandtheresultantsustainabilitycrisis(Brown,1999)hassomeofitsoriginsinour failuretounderstandthesystemicnatureoftheplanetsecosystems,andhumanitys participationinnaturalprocesses,wecanalsoseethatthatparticipationisan ecological imperative(seeHall,Chapter15). Thelinksbetweenecologicaldevastationandourworldview arewellmadebydeepecologistsandecofeminists(see,forexampleDevall&Sessions,1985 Diamond&Orenstein,1990Naess,1987Naess,1989Plant,1989Roszak,1995).AsBateson wrotelongago IfyouputGodoutsideandsethimvisvishiscreationandifyouhavetheideathatyou arecreatedinhisimage,youwilllogicallyandnaturallyseeyourselfasoutsideand againstthethingsaroundyou.Andasyouarrogateallmindtoyourself,youwillseethe worldaroundyouasmindlessandthereforeasnotentitledtomoralorethical consideration.Theenvironmentwillbeyourstoexploit...
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Ifthisisyourestimateofyourrelationtonatureandyouhaveanadvancedtechnology, yourlikelihoodofsurvivalwillbethatofasnowballinhell.Youwilldieeitherofthe toxicbyproductsofyourownhate,or,simply,ofoverpopulationandovergrazing. (Bateson,1972b:462) Onpurposeandmeaning:spiritandbeauty Asthequotesatthebeginningofthischapterindicate,whileactionresearchpractitioners suggestslightlydifferentemphasesintheirworkquestforlife, maketheworldbetter, loving, freerthereisbroadagreementthatthepurposeofhumaninquiryistheflourishing oflife,thelifeofhumanpersons,ofhumancommunities,andincreasinglyofthemorethan humanworldofwhichweareapart.Aparticipativeworldviewinvitesustoinquireintowhat wemeanbyflourishing,andintothemeaningandpurposeofourendeavours,andthis,aswe willargue,isakeydimensionofqualityininquiry.AsBerryasksus,whatisthegreatwork of humanityinourtime,andhowareourindividualhumanprojectsalignedwithit(Berry,1999). Participativeconsciousnessispartofaresacralizationoftheworld,areenchantmentofthe world(Berman,1981Berry,1988Skolimowski,1993).Sacredexperienceisbasedin reverence,inaweandloveforcreation,valuingitforitsownsake,initsownrightasaliving presence.Todenyparticipationnotonlyoffendsagainsthumanjustice,notonlyleadstoerrors inepistemology,notonlystrainsthelimitsofthenaturalworld,butisalsotroublesomefor humansoulsandfortheanimamundi.Giventheconditionofourtimes,aprimarypurposeof humaninquiryisnotsomuchtosearchfortruthbuttoheal,andabovealltohealthealienation, thesplitthatcharacterisesmodernexperience.ForasR.D.Laingputitratherdramatically: ...theordinarypersonisashrivelled,desiccatedfragmentofwhatapersoncanbe... Whatwecallnormalisaproductofrepression,denial,splitting,projection,introjection andotherformsofdestructiveactiononexperience...Itisradicallyestrangedfromthe structureofbeing(Laing,1967:2527). Asoneofuswroteearlier: Tohealmeanstomakewhole:wecanonlyunderstandourworldasawholeifweare partofitassoonasweattempttostandoutside,wedivideandseparate. Incontrast, makingwholenecessarilyimpliesparticipation:onecharacteristicofaparticipative worldviewisthattheindividualpersonisrestoredtothecircleofcommunityandthe humancommunitytothecontextofthewidernaturalworld.Tomakewholealsomeans tomakeholy:anothercharacteristicofaparticipatoryworldviewisthatmeaningand mysteryarerestoredtohumanexperience,sothattheworldisonceagainexperiencedas asacredplace(Reason,1994:10) Weneedtobewareofinflatingthenotionofthespiritualtosomeremoteendstatethatcanbe attainedonlyafterimmenseeffort.Forwhilethedisciplineofspiritualpracticeisimportant,as JohnHeronpointsout(personalcommunication1997),simpleopennesstoeveryday participativeexperience,feelingthatsubjectandobjectareinaninseparableseamlessfieldof imagingandresonanceafieldwithinfinitehorizonsisitselfaspiritualexperience.Meister Eckhartdescribedthespiritualpathasbeautifulandpleasantandjoyfulandfamiliar,andas MatthewFoxasks: Whydoesheclaimthathiswayisfamiliar?Isthereahauntingsenseinwhichthe creationcentredwayconjuresupchildhoodandotherperiodsoftruthinourlives?Isit becausewhatisbeautifulandpleasantandjoyfulisnecessarilyfamiliar?IsEckharts wayafamiliarwaybecauseitisnonelitist?Eckhartlearnedtotrusthislifeandown lifeexperiencestobespiritualistobeawakeandalivetheholinessoflifeitself absolutelyfascinatedEckhart(Fox,1983a:34)

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Nordoesattentiontothespiritualmeanthatweloseconcernforthepolitical,forourouter workactionsintheworldaregroundedinourinnerwork.AsHeronpointsout(1996b),just aspracticalknowingderivesitsvalidityfromitsgroundingexperientialknowing,practical knowingalsoconsummatesourexperientialknowinginworthwhileaction.Eckharttellsuswe cannotusetheinnerworkasanexcuseforabandoningtheouter: Weoughttogetoveramusingourselveswithraptures forthesakeofagreaterlove whichistoadministertowhatpeoplemostneed whetherspiritually orsocially orphysically.(Fox,1983a:92) Buthealsopointsoutthat Theoutwardwork willneverbepuny iftheinnerwork isgreat. Andtheoutwardwork canneverbegreatorevengood iftheinwardoneispunyandoflittleworth.(Fox,1983a:99) Fox(1983b)offersusacreationcentredspiritualitywhichbeginsintheoriginalblessing of aweanddelightatthebeautyandrichnessofcreation.AccordingtoFox,AdelaideofBath taughtthatifwedidntappreciatethebeautyofthecosmoswedeservetobethrownoutofit! AndwhileintheMiddleAgesAquinasdescribedGodasthemostbeautifulthinginthe universe,Descartesthrewoutbeautyasaphilosophicalcategoryforthemodernageandsowe lostthenotionofbeautyinbothphilosophyandtheology.Foxarguesthatwemustreassertthat theexperienceofwonder,aweandbeautyisthebasisofourexperienceofourparticipationin thecosmosthroughbeautywecanfeeloursenseofbelonging. Soaparticipatoryworldviewlocatesthepracticalresponsetohumanproblemsinitsnecessary wider,spiritualcontextasdoesLincolnandDenzinsfifthmomentinqualitativeresearch (1994).Ifhumanitycanbeseenasnaturerenderedselfconscious asBookchinsuggests (1991:313),andhumansareapartofthecosmoscapableofselfawarenessandselfreflection (Swimme,1984),thenhumaninquiryisawaythroughwhichhumanpresencecanbecelebrated asSkolimowskiputsit,weneedtotakethecouragetoimagineandreachforourfullest capabilities.Thusthepracticalinquiryofhumanpersonsisaspiritualexpression,acelebration ofthefloweringofhumanityandofthecocreatingcosmos,andaspartofasacredscienceisan expressionofthebeautyandjoyofactiveexistence.

Fromparticipativeworldviewtoqualityininquiry
Earlyinthisintroductionweidentifiedfivecharacteristicsofactionresearchfromour understandingofthevarietiesofpracticeinthefield(Figure1).Intheprevioussectionwehave shownhowthesecanbeseenasrootedinanemergentparticipatoryworldview(Figure2),which wecanbegintosensebutcannotfullyarticulate.Thisleadsustoaskfivekindsofquestions aboutthevalidityandqualityofactionresearchpractice(summarizedinFigure3),whichwe introducebrieflyhereandattendtoinmoredepthinourconcludingchapter. Figure3abouthere
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Ourconsiderationsofthenatureofthegivencosmos, whichwedescribedasradically interconnectedandevolutionary,drawsourattentiontothelivingprocessthatisactionresearch. Actionresearchisbestseenasanemergent,evolutionaryandeducationalprocessofengaging withself,personsandcommunitieswhichneedstobesustainedforasignificantperiodoftime. Thisleadsustoaskquestionsaboutemergenceandenduringconsequence. Ouremphasisontheimportanceofpracticaloutcomesdrawsourattentiontopragmatic questionsofpracticeandpracticing.Whataretheoutcomesoftheresearch?Doesitwork?What aretheprocessesofinquiry?Aretheyauthentic/lifeenhancing? Ourreflectionsonwaysofknowingencouragesustoaskwhatdimensionsofanextended epistemologyareemphasizedintheinquiryandwhetherthisisappropriate?Itencouragesusto considerthevalidityclaimsofthedifferentformsofknowinginthemselvesandtherelationship betweendifferentwaysofknowing.Thesearequestionsaboutpluralwaysofknowing. Therelationshipdimensiondrawsourattentiontothequalityofinteractionthathasbeen developedintheinquiryandthepoliticalformsthathavebeendevelopedtosustaintheinquiry. Thesearequestionsofrelationalpractice.Howhavethevaluesofdemocracybeen actualizedin practice?Whatistherelationshipbetweeninitiatorsandparticipants?Whataretheimplications forinfrastructureandpoliticalstructures? Finally,ourquestionsaboutmeaningandpurposeencourageustoaskwhethertheinquiry processhasaddressedquestionsaboutsignificance:whatisworthwhile?whatvalueshavebeen actualizedintheinquiry?Andatawiderlevelthesequestionsinviteustoconnectourworktoa questionsofspirituality,beautyandwhetherwehavecreatedaninquiry processwhichistruly worthyofhumanaspiration.

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