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Individual differences in statistics anxiety among college students

Abstract
The present study investigated differences in statistics anxiety levels based on students' gender and age. Using the statistics anxiety scores of 246 college students, a 23 between-subjects factorial multivariate analysis of covariance was performed on the six dependent variables (worth of statistics, interpretation anxiety, test and class anxiety, computational self-concept, fear of asking for help, and fear of statistics teachers) that were hypothesized to be six dimensions of statistics anxiety. Independent variables were gender and age. Previous mathematics experience (PME) was entered as a covariate. The results showed that PME was significant and accounted for 17% of the variance in the combined dependent variables. There was no significant interaction effect and no significant main effect for gender. After adjusting for the effects of the covariate, a significant main effect for age was found. Older students showed significantly higher statistics test and class anxiety than younger students, even though older students showed the most positive attitudes toward the usefulness of statistics.

http://www.psych.uncc.edu/Womble.pdf (stress factors on college students) http://www.nativeremedies.com/ailment/overcoming-test-anxiety.html http://www.andrews.edu/sed/ecp/resources/faculty-research/montagano-research/measuring-testanxie.pdf (test anxiety in children scale) http://www.leeds.ac.uk/educol/documents/184268.pdf (test anxiety) http://www.elt-china.org/pastversion/lw/pdf/ZhangXianping.pdf (taiwan) http://www.ejmste.com/v4n1/Eurasia_v4n1_Zakaria_Nordin.pdf (matriculation) http://www.krepublishers.com/02-Journals/IJES/IJES-01-0-000-09-Web/IJES-01-1-000-09-Abst-PDF/IJES01-01-033-09-012-Karimi-A/IJES-01-01-033-09-012-Karimi-A-Tt.pdf (pdf) http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0CTG/is_1_16/ai_65640245/

Abstract: This paper investigated the interrelationship among academic stress,anxiety, time management, and leisure satisfaction among 249 university undergraduates by age and gender. Time management behaviors had a greater buffering effect on academic stress than leisure satisfaction activities. Significant gender differences existed among all the measures. Females had more effective time management behaviors than males, but also experienced higher academic stress and anxiety. Males benefited more than females from leisure activities. Freshmen and sophomore students had higher reactions to stress than juniors and seniors. Anxiety, time management, and leisure satisfaction were all predictors of academic stress in the multivariate analysis. Anxiety

reduction and time management in conjunction with leisure activities may be an effective strategy for reducing academic stress in college students. A disturbing trend in college student health is the reported increase in student stress nationwide (Sax, 1997). Stressors affecting students can be categorized as academic, financial, time or health related, and self-imposed (Goodman, 1993; LeRoy, 1988). Academic stressors include the student's perception of the extensive knowledge base required and the perception of an inadequate time to develop it (Carveth, Gesse, & Moss, 1996). Students report experiencing academic stress at predictable times each semester with the greatest sources of academic stress resulting from taking and studying for exams, grade competition, and the large amount of content to master in a small amount of time (Abouserie, 1994; Archer & Lamnin, 1985; Britton & Tesser, 1991; Kohn & Frazer, 1986). When stress is perceived negatively or becomes excessive, students experience physical and psychological impairment (Murphy & Archer, 1996). Methods to reduce stress by students often include effective time management, social support, positive reappraisal, and engagement in leisure pursuits (Blake & Vandiver, 1988; Mattlin, Wethington, & Kessler, 1990). Leisure satisfaction is defined as the positive feeling of contentment one perceives as a result of meeting personal needs through leisure activities (Seigenthaler, 1997). Although relationships among some leisure domains and perceived stress have been studied in a variety of settings involving retirees to school-related settings (Kabanoff & O'Brian, 1986; Kaufman, 1988; Pickens & Kiess, 1988; Ragheb & McKinney, 1993; Tice & Baumeister, 1997), relationships between leisure satisfaction and academic stress of college students have not been addressed directly. The only scientific research that specifically related leisure satisfaction to academic stress was that of Ragheb and McKinney (1993), who established a negative association between academic stress and leisure satisfaction. A limitation of this study, however, was that it measured academic stress using seven items that were extracted inclusively from occupational stress inventories. The concept of time management is generally defined in terms of clusters of behavior that are deemed to facilitate productivity and alleviate stress (Lay & Schouwenburg, 1993). Effective time management strategies increase academic performance (Campbell & Svenson, 1992) and are frequently suggested by academic assistance personnel as aids to enhance achievement for college students. Productive study methods are characterized by "time management" and "strategic studying" (Entwistle & Ramsden, 1983; Kirschenbaum & Perri, 1982). Although programs emphasize starting large tasks well before due dates, breaking down large tasks into small ones, and doing small tasks on a regular schedule, students regularly ignore these techniques and find themselves in great distress before exams (Brown, 1991). Research has reported evidence for the multidimentional nature of the time management construct (Britton & Tesser, 1991; Macan, Shahani, Dipboye & Phillips, 1990). In the present paper, time management was conceptualized in terms of setting goals and priorities, the use of mechanics (like listing priorities), preference of an organized workplace, and the perceived control of time. These components of time management were taken from Macan, et al. (1990). The above literature suggests that the tendency to structure one's time and leisure satisfaction may be an important factor in reducing academic stress. The purpose of this study was to examine the interrelationship (and predictors) of college students' academic stress with anxiety, time management, and leisure satisfaction. It was hypothesized that academic stress would show a significant positive correlation with anxiety, and a significant negative correlation with self-reported time management behaviors and leisure satisfaction of college students. A person engaging more frequently in time management behaviors will report fewer physical and

psychological symptoms of stress. The greater satisfaction with leisure that students indicate, the lower their perceived academic stress will be. A secondary purpose of this research was to examine the differences in the study variables by gender and age. Since college women and older students report better time management skills than college men and younger students (Trueman & Hartley, 1996), we hypothesized that females and older students would have effective time management behaviors and consequently less academic stress and anxiety. METHODS SAMPLE The sample consisted of 249 full-time undergraduate students at a Midwestern university. The sampling frame chosen was the University Registrar's directory of address files that provided an up-to-date address list of students by gender and class status. Respondents were randomly selected from the directory. Information was collected using a self-administered, voluntary, and anonymous questionnaire. Of the total 593 surveys randomly selected and mailed to the respondents, 249 completed questionnaire were returned, yielding a response rate of 42%. Consent for participation was obtained prior to the survey. The sample was 91% white, which was representative of the university. Preliminary analysis indicated no statistically significant difference in the demographic information between respondents and non-respondents except in their age and gender. More females and sophomores responded to the survey. The average age was 21 years (SD=2.0), and the majority of the sample were females (74.6%), sophomores (36%), and attended religious activities regularly (75%). In regards to health behaviors, 25% were smokers (defined as current use of any number of cigarettes) and 72.6% consumed alcoholic beverages (had one drink) in the last week. Most students reported bingeing alcohol on the weekend. Instruments: Four self-report questionnaires were selected for the present study. Academic Stress: Gadzella's Student-life Stress Inventory (SLSI) (1991) is designed to assess the students' perceived academic stress and reactions to stress. There are 51 items arranged on a Likert response format (1=never true to 5=always true) that assessed five categories of academic stressors (frustrations, conflicts, pressures, changes, and self-imposed), and four categories describing reactions to stressors (physiological, emotional, behavioral, and cognitive). Validity and reliability of the instrument have been reported earlier (Gadzella, 1991; Gadzella, Masten, & Stacks, 1998). The items were summed for each subsection to get a total score in all nine categories. A higher score was indicative of greater stress and reactions to stress. Internal consistency estimates ranged from 0.69 to 0.82 on the nine categories in the present study. Leisure Satisfaction: Beard and Ragheb's (1980) Leisure Satisfaction Measurement (LSM) was used to gauge students' leisure satisfaction. The instrument contained 51 questions ranging from "Never True" (1) to "Always True" (5) and assessed six leisure satisfaction components: psychological benefits, educational benefits, social benefits, relaxation benefits, physiological benefits, and aesthetic-environmental rewards. A higher score was indicative of greater benefits from leisure activities. The present study obtained an alpha reliability of 0.95 (subscales ranged from 0.85 to 0.95) as compared to 0.93 reported by Beard and Ragheb (1980).

Time Management: Macan et al. (1990) Time Management Behaviors (TMB) scale was used to assess students' time management behaviors. The instrument contained 46 items with a range of "Seldom True" (1) to

"Very Often True" (5). Four subscales of time management were examined: Perceived Control of Time (belief that one can affect how time is spent), Setting Goals and Priorities (goal setting and prioritizing of objectives to reach the goal), Mechanics of Time Management (planning and scheduling), and Preference of Organization (organizational approach to a project or workspace). Certain items were reverse scored so that a higher score indicated greater time management skills. Chronbach's alphas for each of the TMB factors and overall TMB score were as follows: Mechanics of time management (0.85), setting goals and priorities (0.84), perceived control of time (0.67), preference of organization (0.80), and overall TMB score (0.74). The alpha coefficients for this study of mechanics of time management, preference of organization, and overall TMB score were higher than those reported by Macan et al. (1990). Trait and State Anxiety: Spielberger's (1980) State-Trait Anxiety Inventory Form Y (STAI-Y) was used to assess both anxiety as an emotional state (state anxiety) and individual differences in anxiety as a personality trait (trait anxiety), with equal numbers of items on both. Validity and reliability of the instrument has been widely reported (Tanaka, Sakamoto, Kijima, & Kitamura, 1998; Goldenberg & Waddell, 1990). Trait anxiety implies differences between people in the disposition to respond to stressful situations with varying amounts of state anxiety. The STAI is a 40-item self-report Likert-type instrument in which subjects respond to items such as "I feel at ease" by marking "Not at all" (1), "Somewhat," (2) "Moderately so," (3) or "Very much so" (4). Both positive and negative items are included in the scales. The two 20-item subscales of the instrument, State Anxiety and Trait Anxiety, have possible scores ranging from 20 to 80. Anxiety based questions were reverse scored so higher scores indicated higher anxiety. Internal consistency of the four subscales were as follows: State Anxiety Absent (0.91), State Anxiety Present (0.82), Trait Anxiety Absent (0.80), and Trait Anxiety Present (0.78). Basic demographic information: Information was collected regarding age, gender, ethnicity, class status, and health risk behaviors (smoking and drinking). STATISTICAL ANALYSIS Student t-tests and ANOVA were used to examine gender and age differences in academic stress, anxiety, time management, and leisure satisfaction. The acceptance level for statistical significance was lowered from 0.05 to 0.01 for the TMB and LSM subscales using a Bonferroni correction for the large number of tests. A Pearson product moment correlation of coefficients was utilized to test the strength of association between academic stress and anxiety, time management, and leisure satisfaction. Results of these analyses determined the variables that were included in subsequent regression analysis, where academic stressors and reactions to stressors served as the dependent variable. Hierarchical regression analysis was employed to control for the combined impact of anxiety, leisure satisfaction components, and time management behaviors to predict academic stress by gender and age. RESULTS Preliminary analyses of variance indicated there were some significant gender and class differences on all four measures (Table 1 and 2). Students, in general, experienced higher stress due to pressure and self-imposed stress as compared to changes, conflict, and frustration. Emotional and cognitive reactions to stressors occurred more frequently, and behavioral and physiological reactions to stressors were reported less often. Females experienced higher self-imposed stress and more physiological reactions to stressors than males; indicating they sweat, stutter, and experience headaches due to stress more than males. Males scored significantly lower than females on both trait and state anxiety, and experience significantly higher satisfaction

from leisure activities. Time management behaviors, however, showed a reverse trend with females managing their time more efficiently than males in three of the four subcategories. This shows female college students' perceived better control of their time, set and prioritized goals, planned, and had an organized approach to tasks and workspace. No statistically significant age differences were observed in academic stress, anxiety, TMB and LSM subscales (except physiological benefit). Freshmen students reported significantly lower physiological benefits from leisure activities.

DISCUSSION OVERVIEW OF RESULTS Results supported the initial hypotheses that a negative correlation would be found between time management behaviors, leisure satisfaction components and perceived academic stress, Leisure satisfaction, however, had a weak correlation (bivariate) with academic stress and further validates the findings reported by Ragheb and McKinney's (1993) study. They found the strength of correlation did not exceed - 0.32 with 13 out of 51 as nonsignificant relationships. Educational benefit from leisure satisfaction was the only predictor of academic stress and did not fully support Cleaver and Eisenhart's (1982) emphasis of association with hobbies and physical activities. Time management behaviors had a greater buffering effect on academic stress than leisure satisfaction activities. Important relationships were found between some aspects of time management and academic stress. The correlational and regression analyses revealed that affective measures of stress were significantly related to the Perceived Control of Time in this college population. The findings are also consistent with stress research showing that feeling in control of the situation is related to lower levels of stress. Furthermore, using an organizational approach in the work place reduced academic stressors. Our hypothesis regarding effective time management was supported for females but not for older college students. This complements prior research on time management in female college students (Allen & Hiebert, 1991; Rawson, Bloomer & Kendall, 1994; Wohlgemuth & Betz, 1991). Efficient time management in females reduced stress (frustration and change), and its reactions (behavioral, emotional, and physiological). Cognitive reaction to stress increased with more effective time management and satisfaction from leisure activities, demonstrating that thinking about stress and upcoming stressful situations is a positive reaction to stressors among college students. Higher scores on cognitive reactions for both male and female students indicated their use of problem-solving ability to lower stress. Previous studies have shown that problem solving is an important coping strategy that can reduce, minimize, or prevent stress by enabling a person to better manage daily problematic situations and their emotional effects (D'Zurilla & Sheedy, 1991). Females had more effective time management scores than males but this did not lower academic stress as hypothesized (Table 5). Although the t-test indicated a significant gender difference in stressors and reactions to stressors, controlling for other variables in the regression model, gender difference became spurious. Higher anxiety and lower leisure satisfaction among females might be a plausible reason for offsetting their relative advantage of time management skills over males. Furthermore, higher academic stress among female respondents may reflect not an actual inequality in number of stressors by gender, but females rating negative events more often and more markedly than males (Allen & Hiebert, 1991). Lower reactions to stressors for male

college students may result from their socialization, which teaches them that emotional expression is an admission of weakness and not masculine (Davidson-Katz, 1991). A positive association was found between anxiety and academic stress as predicted, Trait anxiety was a significant predictor of academic stress in the regression analysis. Individuals who scored high on trait anxiety experienced higher stressors and rections to stressors. Females exhibited higher anxiety (both trait and state) than males (Table 2). This could possibly explain their higher scores on academic stress. Males, however, had greater satisfaction than females from leisure time activities. THEORETICAL AND PRACTICAL IMPLICATIONS OF FINDINGS Effective time management seemed to lower academic stress in this sample. Hence, faculty members and counselors should emphasize participation in time management seminars to improve academic success of students. It is recommended that college students be made aware of time management's potential impact on academic stress, and of what activities should be undertaken instead of leaving it to trial and error. Courses offered for credit and sessions on time management at the student recreation centers and residence halls could enhance efficiency. However, these are not well advertised and utilized. For example a course offered in this campus is entitled "Academic Planning and Development" and emphasizes the importance of attendance, time management skills, study habits, teacher/student relationships, and scheduling important events. Although the class has open enrollment for all students, it is only required for those students on academic probation or suspension. Other efforts to help students utilize their time and decrease their stress are offered through the university recreation center and individual sororities and fraternities. Freshman week orientation programs and workshops on coping with stress, although helpful, may still not be adequate. Publicity for these events may help students better utilize these services and improve academic performance.

Our results indicated that within this college population, the freshmen and sophomore students had higher reactions to stress than juniors and seniors. This could be due to slightly higher anxiety, lower time management behaviors and leisure activities among them as compared to juniors and seniors. Within a college social system, freshmen and sophomores lack the strong social support networks and have not yet developed the coping mechanisms used by juniors and seniors to deal with college stress (Allen & Heibert, 1991). Hence, they have fewer resources for managing stress and anxiety to demanding schoolwork and tasks. This has important implications for stress management. Institutions should include problem-solving training especially for freshmen and sophomores that emphasizes the use of cognitive components to deal with academic stress. Social support networks provided to freshmen, i.e., through freshmen week, special programs, advising, and counselors, although helpful, may still not be adequate. The lack of a strong correlation between leisure satisfaction and perceived academic stress somewhat limits their theoretical and practical significance. Campus recreation practitioners may plan leisure activities and social-recreational pursuits that increase the educational benefit from leisure pursuits to help students handle their academic stress. Recreation centers and student unions should be planned, equipped, and furnished to encourage leisure activities that give students a broader experience, encourage learning new skills, improve knowledge about things around them, and help satisfy their curiosity. LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY

The correlational nature of this study precludes making any causal statements. Therefore, several explanations of our finding can be proposed. For example, there is the possibility that poor time management behaviors may cause academic stress. Alternatively, academic stress may cause poor time management, i.e., students who are performing poorly and are dissatisfied with the present situation may, as a result of the accompanying stress, be less able to manage and control their time. Another limitation of this study is its reliance on self-reported measures, and is based on a small sample from a predominantly teaching Midwestern university. The results should be considered in context, and not be generalized to other segments of the population without further investigations. In particular, similar studies should be conducted on a more heterogeneous population and larger university setting consisting of minority students to determine the associations between the constructs. Such studies are needed to help focus stress management efforts for this population. For college students, research needs to explore the lower leisure satisfaction and its underlying factors, e.g., a sedentary lifestyle, lack of facilities, or cultural factors. More objective measures of academic stress such as observed stress reactions should be used in future research. The general rule of thumb for internal consistency of scales is over 0.70 (Nunally, 1078). Some of the scale reliabilities were lower than 0.70 but none below 0.67. Future research should explore the associations of these constructs with higher scale reliabilities. Despite these limiting factors, the present research is the first study that examined the interrelationship of academic stress with anxiety, time management, and leisure satisfaction of college students. Results provide important insights for using time management and anxiety reduction in conjunction with certain leisure activities to reduce academic stress. IDEAS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH Future research should explore the other mediator variables that could possibly explain the weak, or lack of, correlation between academic stress and other measures: career goals, academic performance, work and life stress, employment status, social support, and coping mechanisms. Furthermore, any differences in life stress and work experiences should be investigated to ascertain if an environmental difference could account for higher stress levels by gender and age. Use of experimental and longitudinal designs will improve the strength of the findings. There is also a need for replication on a more heterogeneous population and larger university setting so as to increase generalizations. REFERENCES Abouserie, R. (1994). Sources and levels of stress in relation to locus of control and self-esteem in university students. Educational Psychology, 14(3), 323-330.

http://www.freeonlineresearchpapers.com/personality-types-test-anxiety-self-esteem-regards

The Relationship Between Personality Types, Test Anxiety and Self-Esteem with regards to Academic Achievement
This study was performed to determine if there is a relationship between personality type, test anxiety, self-esteem and academic achievement, which was measured by the students GPA. The study was conducted at a university in Indiana using undergraduate volunteers. The study used a scale from the MBTI to help determine personality types (introvert or extrovert), also Rosenbergs 10 - item scale for self-esteem, and Spielbergers test anxiety inventory. The hypothesis was that extraverts who have a higher self-esteem, and low test anxiety would have better success with academic achievement than those who are introverts with low self-esteem and high test anxiety. It was found in this study that there was no significant relationship between personality type, test anxiety, self-esteem and academic achievement. The Relationship Between Personality Types, Test Anxiety and Self-Esteem with Regards to GPA. Cognitive styles have been used to explain individuals behavior most notable using Carl Jungs psychological types, as operationalized by Myers (1965) with the Myers Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI). Using personality theory, individuals dispositions for certain behaviors and actions can be understood. Recent research application of the MBTI include such areas as counseling, communications, learning education, empathetic response, decision making, business investments, general theory of the MBTI, construct validity of the MBTI scales, and convergent validity of the MBTI scales with other personality constructs. Despite the MBTIs mixed validity and weak predictive value, it has been used extensively over the past 35 years in research and training efforts worldwide (Barbuto & Plummer 1998).

The MBTI is used to present four scales representing four pairs of preferences: Extraversion and Introversion; Sensing and Intuition; Thinking and Felling; and Judging and Perceiving. These preferences result in 16 learning types. A type is the combination of the four preferences. The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator is one of the most popular instruments for assessing these preferences. This study will only be using one of the four scales. Extraversion Introversion preference tells us how people are energized. Extraverts prefer to focus on the outer world of people and things. Extraverts find energy in things and people. They prefer interaction with others and are action oriented (Vincent & Ross, 2001). Myers (1980) defined extraverts are the after thinkers; they cannot understand life until they have lived it. Their attitude is relaxed and confident. They expect the waters to prove shallow, and plunge readily into new and untried experiences. Minds outwardly directed, interest and attention following objective happenings, primarily those of the immediate environment. Their real world therefore is the outer world of people and things (Myers, 1980). Introverts focus on the inner world of ideas and impressions. Introverts find energy in the inner world of ideas, concepts, and abstractions. They can be sociable but need quiet to recharge their energies (Vincent & Ross, 2001). They are the fore thinkers, and cannot live life until they understand it. Attitude reserved and questioning. They expect the waters to prove deep, and pause to take soundings in the new and untried. Minds are inwardly directed, frequently unaware of the objective environment, interest and attention being engrossed be inner events. Their real world therefore is the inner world of ideas and understanding (Myers, 1980). Extraversion and introversion have their own special dynamics and both attitudes have progressive and regressive properties (Ryckman, 1982). Speilberger (1979) states that an anxiety state may be defined in terms of the intensity of the subjective feelings of tension, apprehension, nervousness, and worry that are experienced by an individual at a particular moment, and by heightened activity of the automatic nervous system that accompanies these feelings. Anxiety will also vary in duration and also in intensity, and fluctuate over time as a function of the amount of stress that impinges upon an

individual and that individuals interpretation of the stressful situation as personally dangerous or threatening. Many students feel anxious or nervous when taking tests in college. Self-Esteem refers to an individuals personal judgment of his or her own worth (Englert, Weed, & Watson 2000). Before the 1980s, most researchers typically computed correlations between childrens self-esteem and academic success. One comprehensive review of research up to them found that most studies reported positive correlations, usually form 0.20 to 0.40 on a 1.00 scale. But since correlations between IQ and academic performance range from 0.50 to 0.70, such results show, at best, a moderate relationship between selfesteem and academic performance (Moeller 1994). Although this is important, my study will use college students and not children. Asendorpf and Wilpers (1998) found that extraversion and socialablity predicted the overall interaction rate, the number of new peers, and various aspects of relationships with opposite sex peers. Whether the students reported a partner or not and the number of quality of their non-peer relationships were not affected by their personality. The study that will be conducted here will focus on all aspects of extraverts and introverts, also their self-esteem. Individuals with achieving personality priorities had higher selfesteem than individuals with pleasing personality priorities and individual with detaching personality priorities. They also had higher social interest than individuals with outgoing personality priorities and fewer dysfunctional attitudes than those with pleasing personality priorities and those with detaching personality priorities (Alderian, Kottman, and Rice 1998). Ashby (1998) also found personality types were significantly different on selfesteem, social interest, internal locus of control, and dysfunctional attitudes. In general, these differences were consistent with the theoretical descriptions of each of the personality priorities. This study will also be focusing on achievement and self esteem, but also that personality types indicated by the MBTI. Speilberger (1979) found that students with high-test anxiety tend to blame themselves for their poor performance, while low test-anxious students did

not. He also found that high test- anxious students apparently respond to examination stress with intense emotional reactions and negative self-centered thoughts that impair the performance, while those low in test anxiety react with increased motivation and concentration. Gaudry and Speilberger (1971) found that at the college level, there is evidence that anxiety tends to be associated with lower grades and higher dropout rates. As cited in an article written by Kwan, Bond, & Singelis (1997) there has been relative research in which links have been found between self-esteem and the five factors of personality. Concerning the effects of personality on selfesteem, previous work on American samples has found that self-esteem is positively correlated with Extraversion (strong), Openness to Experience (weak), and Conscientiousness (moderate) and is negatively correlated with Neuroticism (strong) (Costa, McCrae, & Dye, 1991; Digman 1990; McCrae & Costa, 1988). The same personality correlates with self-esteem were also found is Chinese student samples (Ho, 1994; Luk & Bond, 1992). It thus seems that the relations between self-esteem and Neuroticism, Extraversion, Openness to Experience, and Conscientiousness are quite robust across cultures. Therefore they expected that the effects of Neuroticism, Extraversion, Openness to Experience, and Conscientiousness on life satisfaction be meditated through self-esteem across the two cultures. (Kwan et al, 1997) Other relevant research has found that Individuals with achieving personality priorities had higher self-esteem that individuals with pleasing personality priorities and individuals with detaching personality priorities. Ashby et al. also had higher social interests than individuals with outgoing personality priorities and fewer dysfunctional attitudes than those with pleasing personality priorities and those with detaching personality priorities. (Ashby, Kottman, & Rice, 1998) There has been much debate regarding whether personality variables exist as discrete classes or on a continuum. Much of the criticism surrounding the MBTI is its treatment of personality variables as discrete classes (Barbuto, 1997). Ross and Broh (2000) found that academic achievement boosts selfesteem and the sense of personal control, but the latter influences subsequent academic achievement. Most previous research on adolescent selfconcept has included

selfesteem or, less commonly, the sense of personal control but not both. Ross and Broh also stated that the sense of personal control and selfesteem are highly correlated but may have different consequences for academic achievement. My study believes that self-esteem does improve academic achievement. Battle (as cited by Ross and Broh, 2000) stated that in the self esteem model, adolescents who feel good about themselves do better in school than do those who have low selfworth. Proponents of this model contend that self-esteem leads to academic success. Of course there have been alternative views such as the one cited by Ross and Broh. In contrast to the effectiveness theory of personal control presented here others have argued that self-esteem does affect academic performance and that the consequences of selfesteem are real, not spurious, for a number of reasons. First according to selfconsistency theory, self-esteem shapes our behavior because of the self consistency motive (Rosenberg 1989), that is people act in a way that is consistent with their self-concept, so that adolescents with high selfesteem would act in ways that maintain their self-esteem (like getting good grades). My variables that are being examined in this study are personality type, test anxiety, self-esteem and its relationship to GPA. This research study is designed to find a relationship, if any, between the following variables: selfesteem and test anxiety, introvert / extrovert and test anxiety, GPA and test anxiety, self-esteem and GPA, extrovert / introvert and GPA, extrovert / introvert and self-esteem. The hypothesis was that Extraverts who have a higher self-esteem and low test anxiety would have better success with academic achievement than those who are introverts with low self-esteem and high test anxiety. Methods Participants There were 60 volunteers, 20 males and 40 females, who have participated in this study. The ages ranged from 18 44 with a mean age of 22. The participants were students who were enrolled in undergraduate courses at a university in Indiana. Participants who volunteered in this study signed an informed consent form.

Questionnaire Rosenbergs (1965) SelfEsteem scale is a well validated, 10-item measure of global, personal self esteem. Its average type reliability analysis is greater than .80. Responses were made on a 4- point scale with the anchors of 1 (strongly disagree) and 4 (strongly agree). Half of the items have been formulated and scored in reverse direction to reduce the possibility of an acquiescence response set (Kwan, Bond, & Singelis, 1997). The alpha measure for this scale in this research was .856. The Myers Briggs Type Inventory (MBTI), which is composed of sixteen four letter combinations that represents characteristics about someones personality type (Myers 1965). These combinations include Extroverts and Introverts, intuition and Sensing, Thinking and Feeling, Perceiving and Judging. This research only focuses on the scales using Extroverts, Introverts. Gardner (as cited in Hill, 1999) found that test-rest reliability for continuous scores of the MBTI usually exceed .70 and often will surpass .80. Costa and McCrae (as cited in Hill, 1999) found that the MBTI is related to NEO-PI scale and found positive correlations for the E-I scale of .72. Speilberger (1979) Test Anxiety Inventory (TAI) is a self-report inventory designed to measure test anxiety (TA) as a situation-specific personality trait. The TAI consists of 20 item or statements, and the respondents indicate on a four-point scale how often they experience the feeling described in each statement. The TAI provides a measure of total TA (TAI-T) as measures of two TA components worry (W) and emotionality (E). Sapp (1993) found that unlike traditional test anxiety measures, the TAI suggests that worry is not the most important component to interfere with test performance. It is the combination of high worry and emotionality scores that affect test performance. Speilberger (1979) found a test-rest reliability of .80 to .81 for two-week to one-month periods, and .62 after six months. Alpha coefficients ranged from .92 to 96. Validity for the TAI was established with a relationship between TAI and other anxiety measures, such as Sarasons Test Anxiety Scale and the Liebert and Morris Worry and Emotionality Questionnaire. There was also found to be a high correlation of .82 to .83, between the TAI score and the Test Anxiety

Scale (Speilberger 1979). The alpha measure for this scale in this research was .94. Academic achievement will be measured on a 4.0 scale. All volunteers will be asked to write their current GPA in a provided space on the survey that will be passed out during normal class hours. The university GPA scales are 0.0 4.0. All participants were asked their age, gender, year in college, and department major. Participation was optional and those who wished to decline involvement in the study were given the opportunity to decline. All participants were also assured that their responses would be completely anonymous, that there are no right or wrong answers to any of the questions, and that their true responses are very important for the study. The questionnaires were passed out and respondents were given a week to fill out and turn back in. Results Bivariate correlations were computed for GPA, personality type, test anxiety, self-esteem, sex and age. There were no significant correlations found among the variables being studied. The mean for GPAs extroverts was 3.03, SD = .47 and for an introvert it was 3.03, SD = .57. The mean for self-esteems extrovert was 1.62, SD = .48 and for introvert it was 1.77, SD = .46. The mean for test anxiety for extroverts were 2.06, SD = .68 and for introverts it was 1.89, SD = .62. Discussion The purpose of this study was to determine if there were any correlations between GPA, self-esteem, test anxiety and personality types. There were no correlations found between the variables listed above. In contrast to Ashby (1998) who found that personality types were significantly different in selfesteem, I found no such correlations. In summary, the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator is a powerful tool in examining differences in personality. If there were a higher response rate in the return of the surveys, it is possible that some significance would have been found. Some other recommendations for future research would be to replicate this study with a larger sample regarding other colleges or universities, also to conduct this study comparing universities or colleges to one another. The results may have been affected by the

participants year in school because a higher-level student may have experienced or developed techniques regarding test anxiety that a freshman may not have yet developed. Also because this was a voluntary self-report measure, an introvert may be less willing to participate in the survey and less willing to report anxiety levels. The measures length may have also been a factor in the results because potential subjects may have been less willing to participate or accurately fill out the MBTI. An alternate scale of introversion / extroversion may have been more appropriate for this study and could have provided more accurate results. A future study involving the MBTI would be to measure the relationship between personality type to those students who complete college to those who withdraw from colleges or universities.

http://www.gradresources.org/articles/emotional_fatigue.shtml

Emotional Fatigue: Coping With Academic Pressure

Nick Repak Director, Grad Resources

Introduction: Recognizing the Problem on the University Campus In the classic film, Catch-22, from the novel by Joseph Heller, Alan Arkin walks with a doctor at the military base, amidst smoke and plane engines roaring for takeoff, and says "I don't want to fly anymore because it's too dangerous and it's made me crazy." The doctor, in sympathy yet with sternness, states, "I can't ground you just because you ask me; I can only ground crazy people." Arkin replies, "Let me get this straight. I must be crazy to keep flying combat missions, but if I asked to be grounded because I'm crazy, then I must not be crazy and therefore I can't be grounded." The doctor confirms, "That's right; that's Catch 22." It seems that the same logic is prevalent today at the major universities of America in describing the hoops and hurdles thrust in the way of the average graduate student. Many are told, "We value teaching, and you will teach (though you may receive little or no training as you become a TA), but if you excel at teaching we may reward you with a special grant that allows you not to teach." Also, "The demands will be so great that you will need a unique support system to help you through your academic quest," but the environment will allow little time to establish relationships, and the department may be so competitive that it hinders relationships from forming. Again, "You might want to take advantage of your advisor as a mentor, and they will enjoy that also," however, their research demands force them to commit their time and energy in the direction of research and publishing and may force you to do the same. You might desire coherence in your life, and that would assist you in your personal wholeness and integration of your studies, but again, there is no time for such things. Facing these academic "catches" may require some critical reflection on your personal lifestyle and environment to avoid emotional fatigue. As one author stated, "Why am I doing this to myself? I asked myself countless times." But he went on to say, "For me, the truth was that, if I had quit, I would have felt guilty for the rest of my life."{1} The problem of burnout, with its accompanying emotional exhaustion and feeling of low personal accomplishment, has prompted much study as it relates to management and business. However, the academic community, which seems to accept fatigue as part of student life, is just beginning to seriously take notice. An undergraduate study done by Neumann, Neumann and Reichel, professors at Boston and Ben Gurion Universities, is the only research that has attempted to define the problem on the college campus. The authors conclude:
College students may in fact experience the burnout phenomenon due to learning conditions that demand excessively high levels of effort and do not provide supportive mechanisms that would facilitate effective coping.{2}

The Neumann study found emotional exhaustion and lack of felt accomplishment as ingredients of the burnout process. The conclusion: Emotional fatigue greatly influences student performance and affects personal commitment. On the other hand, the degree to which the student experiences emotional exhaustion is dependent on his individual flexibility, involvement, and student-faculty contact.

Grad Resources projected these same findings to be true for graduate students who face an increased work load and have little involvement outside their department. Grad Resources commissioned the Barna Research Group of Glendale, California, to conduct a survey of those enrolled in upper level programs. Using telephone surveys with a representative sample of 404 students, stratified by degree program and type of school, Barna evaluated their interests, lifestyles, and felt needs. The survey revealed that graduate students do feel a great amount of pressure. Fifty-five percent of the students surveyed considered dealing with stress and burnout a major challenge. In addition, 70 percent of the grads responding to a broad list of "anxiety producers" declared that their major concern was the achievement of the elusive "balanced life," i.e. finding ample time for family, self, and others and feeling that their life is under control. A NEW study, commissioned by Grad Resources and conducted by sociologist, Dr Robert Woodberry in 2010, indicate that the patterns of stress continue even today. Of the 675 students surveyed, 60% (63% of women) indicated that they need a greater "balance in life." 58% of women responding indicated a high potential for "burnout," listing it as a major concern. An additional element of this latest study also tells us that 85% of Hispanic students reported stress to be a major concern (compared to whites at 54%, African Americans at 47% and Asians at 44%). An alarming 43% of all graduate students surveyed indicated that their stress levels are "more than they can handle." With what was uncovered in the Barna study, and the recent study by Dr Woodberry, it became apparent that the majority of graduate students struggle with emotional fatigue. Some are even in danger of abandoning the calling they have chosen. To help understand the pressures and how to deal with them, we incorporate our findings to present a description of the environment in which this burnout takes place. We also emphasize the traits and symptoms of emotional exhaustion, discuss possible results from poor coping strategies in the life of the graduate student, and conclude by exploring possible solutions to the cycle of fatigue.

The Environment The Barna Study revealed the potentially oppressive environment of graduate students and some ingredients that contribute to emotional fatigue. First, lack of time. Graduate students indicated that their total available free time averages to about 15 hours per week. For many, those hours are consumed by family or job responsibilities, leaving little time for personal needs, refreshment by exercise or leisure pursuits, or even for ordering priorities. Second, financial pressure. Forty-six percent of students surveyed listed finances as an anxiety. Dealing with the financial pressures which result from an extended period of study and pursuing future job prospects may raise graduate students' anxiety levels. Many are already in the work force, at least on a part-time basis and face the tensions of the working world as well as those of intensive study. Third, lack of faculty contact. The Neumann study revealed that faculty involvement was an important ingredient in academic success. One third of those surveyed in the Barna Study said they desired a deeper personal relationship with their supervising professor. Yet the need for individual support and affirmation often goes unmet due to a lack of faculty availability. This situation contributes to the sense of helplessness that graduates feel as they strive to shape their academic environment. One Ph.D. student explained, "Having come from a smaller undergraduate experience to a major research

institute, I felt stressed over the department politics for which I had no game plan." However, it is unreasonable to expect graduate students to shut down, take time out, or demand that their supervisors lessen requirements to help them cope with fatigue. In the present academic system, the life of the graduate student is so clearly defined with built-in pressures that there is little room for escape and recovery. Excessive workload, lack of balance, inadequate free time, and little opportunity to influence the environment make up only part of the fatigue syndrome. Most graduate students possess distinctive inner qualities and traits that help them persevere in academic goals but which may also accentuate the cycle of burnout.

The Traits Traits exhibited by a majority of graduate students set up an emotional cycle of perfectionism that easily leads to exhaustion (see chart detailing the self-description of grads from the Barna study). The Barna survey revealed that most (54%) take life very seriously. Eighty-seven percent said they wanted to be known for integrity. Many graduate students also exhibited perfectionistic tendencies -- placing high expectations on themselves and allowing no room for failure. Consequently, the average student refuses to acknowledge the internal alarms that signal a need for help. Even if support were available, most probably would not accept it. An overwhelming majority of graduate students surveyed (86%) said their primary source of strength during times of need or crisis was their inner self. As self-reliant individuals, they feel they must face their external environment and any accompanying sense of hopelessness and helplessness or feelings of isolation and frustration alone. The internal qualities which keep them pushing, pursuing, seeking, and reaching out of their realm of skill and familiarity, also make them hesitant to seek external help. Why do graduate students persevere so persistently? They have a dream that drives them. The majority (68%) indicated a tendency to lean away from the practical, tangible rewards towards achieving ideals for their own sake and the potential to influence others through an academic career. Graduate students are usually classical examples of the "over-achiever." The Barna data presents the profile of an individual who sets lofty (often unrealistic) goals, allowing no room for flexibility or adjustment to the barrage of new challenges. Many feel inadequately prepared for the tasks that they face -- such as being a teaching assistant. Although some colleges offer seminars in learning teaching techniques, many still do not. Despite lack of guidance, grads still sense internal pressure to push themselves until they master these skills independently. Suffering occasional feelings of bondage to a faculty member does not deter them because they know that their future in academics is partly determined by a positive report from their professor.

Below is a listing of typical traits characterizing a high achiever (compiled from David Fontana, Managing Stress{3}):
y y y y y y y y y y y y y y y y

Does several things at once (i.e. telephoning. holding a conversation, jotting notes on a pad and swiveling back and forth on your chair all at the same time). Often feels guilty when relaxing. Quickly bores with other people's conversations, wants to interrupt, finish sentences for others or hurry them up. Tries to steer conversations towards his/her own interests instead of wanting to hear about those of others. Usually feels anxious when engaged in a task, wanting to finish it and get on to the next one. Is unobservant about anything that isn't immediately connected with what he/she is doing. Prefers to have rather than to be (i.e. to experience possessions rather than to experience himself or herself). Does most things (eating, talking, walking) at top speed. Finds people like himself/herself challenging and people who dawdle infuriating. Is physically tense and assertive. Is more interested in winning than in simply taking part and enjoying himself/herself. Finds it hard to laugh at himself/herself. Finds it hard to delegate. Finds it almost impossible to attend meetings without speaking up. Prefers active holidays to dreamy relaxing ones. Pushes to achieve his/her own standards without showing much interest in what he/she really wants out of life.

A person who possesses many of the traits is a primary candidate for stress-related emotional fatigue. A serious disposition, an attitude of self-reliance, a "driven" personality, and tendencies to overachieve are some of the contributors to a

cycle that leads to burnout in graduate students.

The Indications We can identify basic physical and cognitive components that are good indicators of an approaching fatigue problem. Physiological components concern actual physical changes that occur. The following are several signs and symptoms of burnout:
y y y y y y y y

Decreased stamina Sleep problems increased need for sleep or insomnia Weight loss or gain; decreased or increased appetite Accident proneness Increased susceptibility to illness Psychosomatic complaints headaches, migraines, ulcers or backaches Substance abuse -- excessive drinking or drug use Cardiopulmonary problems increased blood pressure or heart disease

Obviously, a person may not display all of these symptoms nor is this list comprehensive. One symptom may be enough to necessitate personal lifestyle change. Cognitive components also make up some of the primary manifestations of stress and emotional fatigue. Listed below are some of these factors{4}:
y y y y y y y y

Depression: mood changes or cries easily Isolation: lack of desire to socialize, or simply isolates self from others either physically or emotionally Marital/family/roommate conflicts Cynicism Rigidity or passivity Aggression Mental illness Self-esteem problems: sense of despair, emptiness or sense of meaninglessness

Physiological and cognitive changes associated with stress and emotional fatigue interact. A sample case study below provides a picture of how the two types of elements might present themselves and interact with one another:
Brian is a first year graduate student in chemistry. After moving across the country to a new school, he quickly becomes immersed in his work. He develops a few close friends but just does not have time to cultivate relationships outside of the few people he sees every day. Thus, at times, he feels alone and depressed. These feelings are further complicated by the enormous workload thrust upon him. He confesses feeling angry with himself for not staying on top of his work and guilty for all the things he leaves undone. At times, he gets nervous and panicky thinking about all he needs to accomplish and the limited amount of time he has to complete everything. Some nights, even after a long exhausting day, he can't get to sleep. Sometimes he forgets to eat because he is too busy; other times, he grabs a doughnut or candy bar.

Brian realizes things need to change but just does not know how to go about it.

In Brian's case, some of both the physiological and mental symptoms associated with emotional fatigue are seen. Fortunately, Brian recognizes that he cannot keep going at the same pace and that he needs to deal with his emotional fatigue. However, many graduate students refuse to acknowledge their need to slow their pace or to accept outside help. They allow their condition to proceed to advanced stages before dealing with symptoms like those listed above. Soon they melt down from fatigue and reap devastating results. As one author stated, "My lack of patience led to a lot of selfinflicted, unnecessary stress."{5}

The Results But what, then, are the possible results of the cycle of environmental and personal stresses that lead to burnout? Here are several areas that may have lasting repercussions: 1. Quality of work affected. The quality of work produced in the course of a graduate career can be severely affected by poor coping strategies. First, stress may produce a focus on short term completion versus long term learning. For instance, a fatigued student may cram for an exam rather than master the content, or he may throw together material for a paper instead of thoroughly researching his subject. The result is that his work suffers, and he will not get the maximum value from his education. Second, many pressured students attempt to minimize other interests and limit their efforts to what is required within their field of study This causes an unhealthy isolation. Dr. Ernest Boyer, President of the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching says, "Graduate study is all too often a period of withdrawal -- a time when students are almost totally preoccupied with academic work and regulatory hurdles.{6}" This detachment not only isolates the grad from a potential support network but also limits the degree to which the assimilation of ideas can be processed and applied to the complexities of ethical and social issues in real life. Dr. Boyer presents the need for interdisciplinary involvement: "The real danger is that graduate students will become specialists without perspective, that they will have technical competence, but lack larger insights.{7}" This narrow view will directly affect the student's ability to deal with issues later in his career field. 2. Degree plans halted. Without change the graduate student may succumb to overwhelming fatigue which may lead to the halt of his/her degree plans. Dreams of teaching researching and publishing are shattered. Despite investment of years in academic training the grad will fall short of his/her perceived goals. 3. Interpersonal relationships stunted. The Barna study indicated that graduate students place a high value on close personal friendships (81%) and family relationships (59%). Yet the data suggests that when "push comes to shove" for time demands, the pursuit of academic goals wins out. While the Barna study shows a hearty agreement among graduate students concerning the benefits of mutual respect, empathy, commitment, and camaraderie of close peer networks, it may be an agreement in principle only. The hindrances of

time commitments, lack of social involvement, and hesitancy toward self-disclosure prevent the natural development of rewarding support networks. Typical coping mechanisms tend to move graduate students to redouble their work efforts in an attempt to catch up and to guard their personal "academic turf" from those perceived as potential competitors within their department, creating greater isolation. These barriers to vulnerability virtually assure the fatigued graduate student that the benefits of the close community relationships will not be part of their emotional fatigue release. In addition, emotional exhaustion may disengage the student from family relationships. Harvard professor, Dr. Armand Nicholi, in his paper "What Do We Really Know About Successful Families?" emphasizes the devastating effect of an absent spouse or parent on the family. Without spending time together, he says, family members fail to meet each other's emotional needs. For the student who is married, this leads to low self-esteem and results in depression for husband and wife. The same is true for children of graduate students. Dr Nicholi describes the crippling impact of an absent parent. "A child experiences an absent or emotionally absent parent as rejection, and rejection inevitably breeds resentment and hostility.{8}" He cites numerous examples from case studies on the long term results of parental inaccessibility on the child's development and the family experiences, i.e. anger, rebelliousness and incapacitating emotional conflicts. The consequences of poor coping strategies within the family have lasting effects on spouses and children. The coping mechanism of isolation can also set patterns that affect future marital and parental relationships. 4. Future career jeopardized. The academic life holds pressures that remain prevalent throughout graduate school and into an academic career. Yet, how often have so many struggled for so long, through so much, only because they say to themselves, "soon things will be different." Those pursuing Ph.D.'s to teach at the college level (51%) may be deceiving themselves. A recent study of faculty by the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching reveals the intense pressures felt by professors. "Fifty-three percent of those (faculty) under 40 years of age reported that 'my job is a source of considerable personal strain'."{9} They also indicated that "the quality of their work is, in fact, diminished by competing obligations." As one professor confided, the stresses became so unbearable that he was forced to cease his work completely until he recovered from fatigue. The pessimistic picture painted by the formal studies of the burnout phenomena and the descriptions given by graduate students themselves have prompted the offering of various methods of coping. These solutions furnish suggestions for dealing effectively with the burnout phenomena, not with eliminating the situation.

The Solutions It is essential to develop effective coping skills while in graduate school to succeed in a healthy manner, both while in graduate school and later in life. An individual's reaction to, and ability to cope with stress may be more important than lessening the load. The problem of burnout demands that the graduate student possess a strong ego identity. Antonovsky, in Health, Stress, and Coping defines a strong ego identity as "a sense of the inner person, integrated and stable, yet dynamic and flexible; related to social and cultural reality, yet with independence, so that neither narcissism nor being a template of external reality is needed."{10} This inner sense gives confidence to the individual and a coherence to life experience which frees the student

to cope with the pressures of academia. Developing adequate methods of dealing with stress throughout a lifetime involves recognizing weaknesses, utilizing strengths and employing outside sources. We have included a reference to "The Salutogenic Model of Health" which shows the interaction of stressors that lead to a healthy continuum (http://heapro.oxfordjournals.org/content/11/1/11.full.pdf). By using the path from the model, coping strategies can be delineated and used in forming effective methods for coping with burnout. In the study by Woodberry (see chart from 2010), it seems that the most prevalent tools utilized by grad students to cope with stress are: peer interaction, family members and listening to or playing music. It is noteworthy that 90% of married students indicated that "their spouse" was the most helpful stress relief. They also indicated that entertainment or media (73%), visiting a place that renews them (69%), and sports (61%) proved helpful as stress relief.

Percent of Graduate Students Reporting Resources for Dealing with Stress "Somewhat Helpful" or "Very Helpful"
Resource

Your spouse

90

Your peers

78

Your parents or other family members

78

Listening to or playing music

78

Entertainment media like TV or movies

73

Visiting a special place that renews you

69

Social events

68

Participating in sports

61

Praying

57

Eating

50

Your professors

43

Reading holy or sacred literature

40

Counselors

33

Drinking alcohol

33

Chaplains or ministers

28

Recreational drugs

14

Note: Respondents indicating a resource was not applicable were not included in the analysis. To aid in developing a strategy for coping, we have included the following practical recommendations for dealing with the burnout syndrome. 1. Journal your progress. Journaling your progress in dealing with stress and burnout will enable you to identify how this syndrome operates personally in your experience and to seek solutions. Some possible suggestions are:
y

Begin to analyze your destructive "self-talk" -- identify the statements that you say to yourself that minimize your worth and are false statements of your progress and accomplishments. Don't compare yourself to superperformers. Be aware of what you require to remain refreshed and do not attempt to maintain the same pace as them. Identify your strengths and give yourself the opportunity to rebuild confidence through utilizing them. Grad Resources offer aids to help in identifying personal strengths and weaknesses. At particularly low times, list the top fifteen strengths and read them back to yourself. "Mark your trail" when exhaustion sets in. Begin describing the conditions that bring it on, the symptoms by which you identify it and the most efficient means to deal with the problem. Take note of your progress and remember that healthy change takes longer than expected Use your stressful experiences to prepare yourself for the next occurrence.

2. Manage time and set personal priorities. Without good time management, burnout becomes a high probability. When attempting time management consider: First, conserving time -- be wise with the hours in the day. Set a schedule, but don't be forced to follow it absolutely. Second, controlling time -- learn to say "no" where possible and follow through. Third, making time-- realize priorities, reorganize them, and stick to what is important. The following are some suggestions for making use of your time:
y y

Find privacy where the telephone can't ring and people can't interrupt. Get an appropriate amount of sleep. Add one-half hour of sleep each day until you wake up on your own to assess your biological need. You can go for a brief period of shortened nights for extended study hours but do not sustain this schedule for long periods of time. Allow yourself leisure time and take vacations -- even if for a day. Include types of leisure that refresh (alone and in a quiet atmosphere) and that give perspective ie reading an article in another field, novels, listening to music, cooking (or even escaping to the graduate coffee house). Exercise regularly -- even regular walks will help. Eat properly balanced meals. Plan menus for two weeks and freeze large dishes. Plan meals around for socializing to give more time for interpersonal relationships.

y y

3. Cultivate relationships. To cope with burnout, acknowledge your need for interaction with other people. Although finding time for relationships is a challenge for graduate students, social networks add a balance that is vital to alleviating stress. Here are some areas to appraise:
y

Assess your current friendships Which of these are at the acquaintance level the companionship level or the establishedfriendship level? How could these relationships be cultivated with the goal of seeing them progress to a higher level than they are at the present? Develop interaction networks Consider exercising with a group of people to be accountable to one another and maximize the aerobic benefits. Find ways to get out of yourself and get your focus off your condition. Many faculty are hosting optional seminars that cross disciplines to provide greater depth for graduate studies that would be missed by the student unable to think past this fatigue condition Most importantly look for opportunities to serve your peers, the campus community, and the less fortunate in your city.

4. Seek professional help. If stress becomes overwhelming and coping strategies do not help, seek professional help early. By waiting problems can only be exacerbated. The key here is to prevent mental illness. It should be noted the diathesisstress model of mental illness{11} shows that certain genetic combinations may lead to a predisposition toward a mental disorder and that this genetic predisposition combined with environmental stress will result in abnormal behavior. Many forms of mental illness appear to be brought on by "environmental stressors." Therefore, there is no admission of failure in asking others to help manage stress. In fact, it maybe necessary. 5. Develop your world view. Your philosophy of life is vital to achieving purpose and fulfillment. Acquiring a perspective on your place in society and contribution to life will help guard against feelings of discouragement and meaninglessness that

deepens emotional fatigue. In assessing your world view, here are some essential questions to consider:
y y y y y y y y

What is the highest priority of your life? What would you like the biggest priority of your life to be in 40 years? Is there a cause (or causes) for which you would sacrifice your personal standard of living? If someone asked you to describe the principles by which you live your life, what would you say? Are there any absolute rights or wrongs? What are they? How do you make decisions? For example: How will you decide upon your future job placement? The person you decide to marry? What is one question that you would most like answered about life? If you could change one thing about our wor1d what would it be?

Philosopher W. P. Alston emphasizes the importance of periodic reflection when he says:

It can be argued on the basis of facts concerning the nature of man and the conditions of human life that human beings have a deepseated need to form some general picture of the total universe in which they live, in order to be able to relate their own fragmentary activities to the universe as a whole in a way meaningful to them; and that a fife in which this is not carried through is a life impoverished in a most significant respect.{12}

The 2010 Woodberry study reviewed an element of grad life that may be overlooked by some as a means of dealing with stress. While 6 of 10 graduate students indicated that religion was "very important" in their lives, only 41% indicate that "developing their religious perspective is something that they work hard at." A majority indicated that their religious perspective is a source of strength (61%) but only 48% say that their religion is "credible to their peers and professors." In light of this data, it seems that a personal religious faith could have a greater impact on the relief of stress among students who already have a casual involvement, but deeper reflection is needed to "apply it to life" and to find a more intellectual foundation for their faith." The graduate student's basic outlook toward his studies, his future career, and the meaning of life is fundamental to the implementation of any solutions. Burton R. Clark in his book The Academic Life, states:
Under all the strengths and weaknesses, the autonomies and vulnerabilities, of American academic life, we can sense the problem of calling (italics ours). When academic work is just a job and a routine career, then such material rewards as salary are front and center. ...A calling transmutes narrow self-interest into other regarding and ideal regarding interests: One is linked to fellow workers and to a version of a larger common good. It has moral content, contributing to civic virtue.{13}

The view that one's academic circumstances are a calling is paramount to maintaining commitment and achieving success. A calling makes a graduate student's studies inseparable from his personal ideals and integrates his work into his sense of coherence.

Conclusion In this article, we have examined the fatigue syndrome and have presented a number of practical solutions for coping with burnout. The question remains, can the graduate student learn to have a balanced fife in the midst of such tremendous

pressures? By recognizing the role of the academic environment and its oppressive nature, by understanding the personal traits such as perfectionism and the tendency to over-achieve, and by identifying physiological and cognitive symptoms that indicate emotional exhaustion, the graduate student can learn effective coping strategies to stop the destructive cycle of burnout.Internal approaches such as journaling, managing time and setting priorities relieve inner pressure and stream-line activities. External techniques such as cultivating relationships and seeking professional help build support during stressful periods. Most importantly, developing a life philosophy allows the student to maintain the direction he/she has chosen despite immense pulls from every direction. We believe the academic arena needs the new blood of those who are deepened in character and integrity through just such a test as emotional fatigue. Those students who develop the inner strength and wisdom to cope with the pressures they now face will bring tremendous gifts into future leadership and personal commitments. What do you perceive to be your calling, the ideals for which you work? Is it consistent with the highest priorities of your life and with the principles by which you live? Are you living out these views in your academic life? The answers you formulate for these questions reveal your perception of life. In addition, by forming a realistic and accurate world view, you increase your ability to deal with burnout and fatigue in an effective way and forge an inner purpose upon which you can build for the rest of your life.

{1} Jason R. Karp, How to Survive Your Ph.D. (Naperville, Il: Sourcebooks, 2009) p. viii. {2} Neumann, Y and E., and A. Reichel, "Determinants and Consequences of Students' Burnout in Universities," Journal of Higher Education, Vol. 61, No. 1 (January/February 1990). {3} David Fontana, Managing Stress (London: British Psychological Study and Routeledge Ltd., 1989) pp. 70-71. {4} Karp, How to Survive Your Ph.D. p 39. {5} This list of cognitive symptoms was compiled from several sources; see reference list included. {6} Dr. Ernest Boyer, Scholarship Reconsidered (Princeton, New Jersey: Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, 1990) p. 69. {7} Ibid., p. 68. {8} A. Nicholi, "What Do We Know About Successful Families?" Harvard Medical School, Massachusetts General Hospital, from pamphlet containing excerpts from papers delivered during the past few years, p. 2. {9} Boyer, Scholarship Reconsidered, p. 45. {10} A. Antonovsky, Health, Stress and Coping (San Francisco: Jossey Bass, 1979) p. 109. {11} D. Rosenthal, Genetic Theory and Abnormal Behavior (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1970). {12} W.P. Alston, "Problems of Philosophy of Religion," in The Encyclopedia of Philosophy, reprinted ed. (New York: Macmillan, 1972), 6:286. {13} Burton R. Clark, The Academic Life (Princeton, New Jersey: Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, 1987) p. 274. Additional References Farber, B. A. (1983) Stress and Burnout in the Human Service Professions. Pergamon Press: New York. Golembiewski, R. T. & Munzenrider, R. F. (1988) Phases of Burnout: Developments in Concepts and Applications. Praeger:

New York. Hockley, R., ed. (1983) Stress and Fatigue in Human Performance. John Wiley & Sons: New York. Rigger, T. F. (1985) Stress Burnout. Southern Illinois University Press: Carbondale and Edwardsville, Illinois. Schuler R. S. (1979) Effective use of communicating to minimize employee stress. The Personnel Administrator, 24. Watkins, C. E. (1982) A new academic disease: Faculty "burnout." Chronicle of Higher Education.

http://www.athleticinsight.com/Vol7Iss1/StressAthletesNonathletes.htm

Comparing Sources of Stress in College Student Athletes and Non-Athletes

The transition from high school to college can be stressful for any student (Hudd et al., 2000; Pritchard, Wilson, & Yamnitz, 2004), but recent evidence suggests that athletes may experience even greater levels of stress due to the dual demands of athletics and academics placed on them during their freshman year. Lazarus and Folkman (1996) have defined stress as the negative feeling that occurs when an individual feels unable to cope with the demands placed upon them by their environment. For the matriculating freshman student athlete, these demands may at times seem overwhelming. Although researchers acknowledge that participation in athletics can serve as a buffer to stress (Hudd et al., 2000; Kimball & Freysinger, 2003; Kudlacek, 1997; Shirka, 1997), studies also suggest that athletic participation itself can become an additional stressor that traditional college students do not experience (Kimball & Freysinger, 2003; Papanikolaou, Nikolaidis, Patsiaouras, & Alexopoulos, 2003). Athletes experience unique stressors related to their athletic status such as extensive time demands; a loss of the star status that many had experienced as high school athletes; injuries; the possibility of being benched/red-shirted their freshman year and conflicts with their coaches, among other factors (Humphrey, Yow, & Bowden, 2000; Papanikolaou et al., 2003). In addition to these stresses, freshmen athletes must also meet the increased academic demands at the college level. The interaction of these multiple stressors presents a unique problem for the college student athlete, and evidence suggests that the combination of these stressors has a negative affect on their well-being. For example, a recent investigation found that almost half of the male athletes and slightly more than half of the female athletes interviewed indicated that stresses associated with sport participation, such as pressure to win, excessive anxiety, frustration conflict, irritation and fear significantly affected their mental or emotional health (Humphrey et al., 2000). Moreover, studies have suggested that college athletes who experience high levels of stress are more likely to practice bad health habits (Hudd et al., 2000) and to experience psychological problems (Shirka, 1997), including low self-esteem (Hudd et al., 2000; Papanikolaou et al., 2003). In addition to mental health concerns, many athletes report physical health concerns as well, such as lack of sleep, continuous tension, fatigue, headaches, and digestive problems (Humphrey et al., 2000). In fact, 10%

of college athletes suffer from psychological and physiological problems that are severe enough to require counseling intervention (Hinkle, 1994). Even more alarming is the fact that college student athletes tend to avoid seeking out available counseling (Murray, 1997), so the percentage of student athletes who may actually require such intervention is possibly higher than this figure. This is important since Murray (1997) has learned that in addition to those psychological and physiological issues mentioned above, athletes may also be in particular need of counseling for a variety of additional stress-related concerns, including time management, burnout, fear of failure, anxiety, depression, and self-esteem issues. Recent research has supported the contention that time in particular is an important obstacle for many athletes. Humphrey et al. (2000) report that for more than 40 percent of male athletes and well over half for the female athletes, factors related to time were the most serious causes of stress. Most of the respondents in this study felt that there was simply not enough time to combine academics and athletics and to do their best in both areas (Humphrey et al., 2000). Complicating the freshman transition for the student athlete are difficulties related to academic success (Humphrey et al., 2000; Papanikolaou et al., 2003). In fact, 95% of male athletes and 86% of female athletes were stressed by factors such as: tests and examinations, preparing papers for class, missing classes because of travel, and making up missed assignments (Humphrey et al., 2000). In addition, many athletes find they are unprepared for academic life in college or falsely believe that they will be treated differently in the classroom because they are athletes (Papanikolaou et al., 2003). Finally, athletes often find relationships with others quite stressful. For instance, recent findings have suggested that athletes often report problems such as negative and unsatisfactory relationships with teachers, coaches, and fellow athletes (Humphrey et al., 2000; Papanikolaou et al., 2003). In summary, there is a need to identify specific sources of stress that significantly affect student-athletes that may differ from those experienced by the traditional non-sport college student. This is especially true for the college freshman student-athlete who is facing multiple new challenges arising from athletic, academic and social demands. Many freshmen student-athletes are unprepared to successfully deal with these stressors, and knowledge about those specific factors leading to heightened stress levels is essential in the planning of effective intervention programs. Hence, the purpose of this exploratory study was to identify those stressors identified by Division-I freshmen athletes as most prevalent during their first semester in college. Method Participants The participants (n = 362) in this study were female (n = 235) and male (n = 127) freshmen students at a private Division-I Midwestern university. Participation in this study was voluntary, and participants were recruited from a required freshman general education class at the end of their first semester of college. The participants ranged in age from 17 to 34, with a mean age of 18.45 (SD = 1.24). Participants were grouped as athletes (n = 52) and non-athletes (n = 310). Athletes were considered as participating on an intercollegiate varsity athletic team. Due to the demographic composition of the university surveyed being predominantly

female (over 60%) and athletes comprise only a small proportion of the total student population (10%), we decided to allow our participant groups to reflect more of the breakdown of the aggregate university student body rather than having equivalent numbers of participants in each group. Each participant read and completed an informed consent form prior to this study, and were informed that their responses would be confidential. The University Internal Review Board approved procedures for this investigation prior to initiating the study. Measurement We assessed various stressful events specifically oriented to college students lives (e.g., struggling to meet your own academic standards) using questions adopted from The Survey of Recent Life Experiences developed by Kohn, Lafreniere, and Gurevich (1990) which has shown to possess both validity and reliability (de Jong, Timmerman, & Emmelkamp, 1996). Participants were asked to rate how much 57 events have been a part of their lives in the past month on a scale from 1= not at all part of my life to 4 = very much part of my life. A limitation of this exploratory study was that it was conducted at a small private university with relatively demanding academic standards. This could influence the sources of stress experienced by the student-athlete, and future work needs to extend these findings to other more heterogeneous populations. Secondly, this study was not able to ascertain whether gender differences exist in the types of stress experienced by student-athletes and work needs to be conducted to determine whether males and females perceive similar sources of stress. Finally, this study was cross-sectional and limited in its analysis. Future studies should examine the longitudinal effects of stress on the student athletes well-being. Students were grouped as athletes or non-athletes for this study. For each source of stress, the means were compared between the two groups using t-tests. Results The purpose of this exploratory study was to assess the differences in the types of stress that athletes and non-athletes experience. We found that athletes differed in a variety of ways from their non-athlete counterparts. For example, student athletes reported more stress than did non-athletes in a wide variety of variables; specifically those that dealt with conflicts with a boyfriends or girlfriends family, t(359) = 2.53, p < .05, to having a lot of responsibilities, t (357) = 1.96, p < .05, not getting enough time for sleep, t (357) = 1.98, p < .05, and having heavy demands from extracurricular activities, t (359) = 8.81, p < .001. On the other hand, non-athletes reported more stress than their athlete counterparts in areas such as financial burdens, t (357) = 3.27, p < .001, making important decisions about their education, t (357) = 2.03, p < .05, getting ripped off (e.g. paying too much for services) , t (357) = 2.43, p < .05, social conflicts over smoking with a roommate or friend, t (356) = 2.36, p < .05, difficulties with transportation, t (357) = 2.10, p < .05, social isolation, t (356) = 2.73, p < .01, being ignored, t (356) = 2.49, p < .05, and being dissatisfied with their physical appearance, t (356) = 3.35, p< .001.

Discussion The intent of this exploratory study was to compare sources of stress in first semester college freshman student athletes versus student non-athletes. This is important because recent studies (Murray, 1997) have found that athletes may be in particular need of counseling for a variety of additional stress-related concerns, including time management, burnout, fear of failure, anxiety, depression, and self-esteem issues. Although several studies have examined isolated sources of stress in college athlete populations (e.g., health concerns) or athlete specific stressors (e.g., missing class for team-related travel and having to make up work), few studies have examined a wide variety of stressors that affect both athlete and non-athlete populations to ascertain how athletes might be more or less affected by traditional sources of college student stress. In addition, few students have compared stress levels in athletes to those of non-athletes. As will be discussed below, similar to previous studies (Humphrey et al., 2000; Papanikolaou et al., 2003), we found that college student-athletes stressors differ in a variety of ways from their non-athlete counterparts. When the interaction of the environment in producing stress is taken into account (Lazarus and Folkman, 1996) this would appear to be sensible since the student-athletes in our study encountered unique environmental demands when compared to their non-athlete cohorts. Relationship stress Similar to previous research (Humphrey et al., 2000; Papanikolaou et al., 2003), athletes in our study reported more stress from relationships than did non-athletes. In our study, athletes reported more stress resulting from conflicts with their boyfriends or girlfriends family than did their non-athlete counterparts. Additionally, our study replicated previous findings (Humphrey et al., 2000; Papanikolaou et al., 2003) relating to time management issues. The athletes in our study reported significantly greater levels of stress due to the increased number of responsibilities related to involvement in athletics. This may have been particularly true since participants in this study were freshmen. While many freshmen must learn to successfully navigate the increased academic and social demands associated with college success, the freshmen student-athlete has the additional stress of athletic responsibilities. Hence, the matriculating student-athlete faces additional and unique sources of stress not encountered by the student non-athlete. Academic Stress Unlike previous studies in which athletes reported higher levels of academic stress due to missed classes, (Humphrey, et al., 2000; Papanikolaou et al., 2003), athletes in our study did not report more academic problems and concerns than their non-athlete counterparts. In fact, the only academic-related difference between athletes and non-athletes was that non-athletes reported more stress from making important decisions about their education. Although it might seem surprising that athletes did not fare worse, this may be reflected in the general academic philosophy of the institution. Athletes must meet the identical academic standards of the general student population, and it could be that in many cases they are somewhat better prepared academically than other Division-I collegiate athletes.

Financial Stress Although previous studies reported athletes experiencing more stress from financial concerns (Humphrey et al., 2000; Papanikolaou et al., 2003), in our study non-athletes were more likely to report stress from financial burdens than were athletes. Once again, this may partially reflect the nature of the university, which is a private institution with significant tuition demands. Due to the fact that many of the athletes are attending school on an athletic scholarship, it is plausible that the financial burden of attending a private institution are less when compared to the non-athlete. Physical and Mental Health There were also a few differences in stress related to both physical and mental health. Similar to Humphrey et al. (2000), athletes in our study were more likely than non-athletes to report stress from not getting enough time for sleep. On the other hand, stress-related differences in mental health variables tended to be better for athletes than for non-athletes. This finding is compatible with Morgans (1984) Mental Health Model that describes the psychological profile of athletes as being considerably more positive than that of the general population. Body Satisfaction Finally, being an athlete seemed to serve as a buffer for certain types of stress in our study. For example, non-athletes were more vulnerable to being dissatisfied with their physical appearance. This is not surprising given that athletes display healthier attitudes about their eating habits and body shape than do their nonathletic counterparts (DiBartolo & Shaffer, 2002). This perhaps isnt surprising since recent findings (Martin & Lichtenberger, 2002) have found that exercise training can lead to significant improvements in body image. Since athletes undergo regular periods of structured training, and are often more aware of their nutritional needs, it would appear sensible that they would also possess healthier beliefs when compared to non-athletes. Social Stress In addition to athletic status serving as a buffer against body dissatisfaction, the athletes in this study reported less stress than their non-athlete counterparts from getting ripped off, social conflicts over smoking, difficulties with transportation, social isolation, and being ignored. A partial explanation for these findings may be that the student-athlete has an established social niche. As a member of their athletic team, the athlete is involved from the start with a social group that shares similar interests. Hence, feelings of social isolation or social conflicts over smoking are probably not experienced by the student-athlete to the same degree as the student non-athlete since their social group is more homogeneous. In addition, because the athlete has a built in social group, they likely would have a built in support system to help them with certain types of stress. Conclusions and Implications

Because athletes often represent an at-risk student group in terms of college academic success, it is important to identify the unique sources of stresses experienced during the first semester freshman year for the student-athlete. University athletic departments need to be cognizant of the time demands that are placed on their athletes during this crucial period of adjustment, Additionally, prevention programs need to be implemented that help assist the freshmen athlete in dealing with potential sources of stress.. While interventions need to be developed that take into account the unique needs of the college student athlete, future studies ought to address the types of prevention and intervention methods used. One proactive suggestion to reduce stress based on recent research has been to allow student athletes to work in groups (Harris, Altekruse, & Engels, 2003) so that they can share experiences. Allowing athletes to share common experiences may serve as a way for younger athletes to assimilate themselves into college and serve as a support mechanism for those having difficultly adjusting. Other possible interventions could consist of limiting weekly practice time for freshmen. One of the most commonly cited sources of stress for freshmen athletes is time. This issue is important, since upon matriculation the freshman athlete is faced with the same increased academic and social demands of the non-athlete. However, they have significantly greater time demands placed upon them, leaving them less time to acclimatize themselves to college life. Restrictions on practice time and athletic commitments would facilitate this adjustment period for the freshmen athlete.

http://www.mendeley.com/research/individual-differences-in-statistics-anxiety-among-college-students/#page-1

http://psych.hanover.edu/research/exponnetresults/LibertunAbstract.html

Summary ANXIETY IN GRADUATE STUDENTS FROM ARGENTINA AND USA Sample recollection electronic by internet and paper and pencil Doctoral Thesis PhD Candidate: Lic. Lidia B. Menijes de Libertun Thesis Director: Argentina: Dra. Maria C. Richaud de Minzi. USA: Robert Roberts, Ph.D. Anxiety as pathology expression is present in all contemporaries societies regardless of their cultural differences. Up to 25% of all people are affected by it at some moment of their lifetime, making anxiety pathology one of the most prevalent pathologies within the psychopathological realm. The expression of anxiety is affected by cultural contexts and usually

coexists with depression. This research presents a comparison of the anxiety levels on Argentinean and United States college students. GOALS. aCompare the degree and type of anxiety, and its most common co morbidity depression, among Spanish and English college students. b- Correlate these differences to gender, age, or study-discipline. c- Evaluate whether the procedures to collect the information in person and website questionnaire impacts on the results. VARIABLES AND METHODS. a-This thesis collected the following data from interviewed individuals: age, country of birth, country of the university were is studying, language, gender, and study discipline. In addition, four tools were used, both in its original language, English and in its Spanish translation. Three of these questionnaires assess type and level of anxiety: SIAS, Social Interaction Anxiety Scale, measures social phobia; BAI, Beck Anxiety Inventory, measures anxiety level; APPQ, Albany Panic and Phobia Questionnaire, measures panic attack The fourth, Beck Depression Inventory II, evaluates depression levels. b-Sample description and inclusion criteria. The research was performed on a sample of 405 graduate students subdivided in three groups according to the way the information was collected and the language of the answers. Data was collected through: a- paper questionnaires, belectronic questionnaires posted on internet. Data about language, country of birth, and country of study were used to define the criteria for including individuals in the sample. Sample I, was collected by Internet in English. All members of this sample comply with the following characteristics: are college students, are born in the USA, and are studying in USA when they answered the questionnaire. Sample II, was collected by Internet in Spanish. All members of this sample comply with the following characteristics: are college students, are born in the Argentina, and are studying in Argentina when they answered the questionnaire. Sample III, was collected in paper in Spanish. All members of this sample comply with the following characteristics: are college students, are born in the Argentina, and are studying in Argentina when they answered the questionnaire. Participation in this research, in all its formats, has been voluntary and with express agreement of participants. In all the three groups, gender was balanced: 54.8 % female, and 45.2% male. RESULTS. A- Language of the Sample. Significant statistical differences were found in relation to the language variable. Students who answered in English showed higher levels of anxiety, panic attack, social phobia and depression than those who did it in Spanish. B- Comorbidity. In this research we observe a covariation between the BAI questionnaires designed to measures the severity of anxiety in

adult and adolescents and the BDI II.designed to measures the severity of depression in adult and adolescents. C- Gender Incidence. In our sample, in both means of collecting information, there are significant differences on panic attack, females register higher levels. In both means of collecting there was not found differences in social phobia correlated to gender. In the Spanish collection females also register higher levels of anxiety and depression. In our electronic sample, there was not found significant differences in anxiety level and depression level. D- Collection mean. According to our results, the collection-mean , in person or via internet,do not affect the tests-results. Two difference were detected that can be correlated to web collection, depression level. E- Age Incidence. In the internet collection of data in social phobia, older respondents show higher levels of it. Statistically significant differences correlated to age are only present in the electronic recollection. Otherwise, results agree with those described on mainstream scientific publications. F- Discipline of study incidence. In the electronic collection some groups were correlated to different levels of pathology Students of exact sciences and agriculture showed higher levels of anxiety (significant at 5% level). In the Spanish responses, health-science students presented higher levels of anxiety (statistically significant). CONCLUSIONS. A- Language of the Sample. The Spanish sample showed lower levels of anxiety and depression. One of the explanatory hypotheses for this outcome, in agreement with the bibliography, correlates these results to the solid and less transient familiar and social links that Latin populations tend to have, which might protect individuals from depression and anxiety. Conversely, the English sample, belonging to an Anglo-Saxon population might have an increasing weakening of their social-ties, and would be more exposed to anxiety due to individuals isolation. B- Comorbidity. Findings agree with numerous studies, where there is a comorbidity between anxiety and depression, with a percentage falling between 40 and 90, and being the most common form of comorbidity C- Gender Incidence. The differences among females and males in the paper sample are coincident with an extensive body of research, where anxiety and depression are more common in females than in males. In the electronic recollection there neither was found such difference related to gender in anxiety level and depression. In the case of depression one of the explanatory social phobia age and no gender differences in anxiety level and

hypotheses for this outcome, in agreement with NIMH concern about male trying to denied their fillings, among the men who expressed a negative attitude toward help-seeking and had high levels of gender-role conflict, feelings that men should behave differently than women. Web answer aloud them to feel more free to express their filings. In the case of anxiety level, one of the explanatory hypotheses for this outcome in agreement with research published about computer anxiety, men tent to become more anxious than female when trying to processing large amount of information via internet Female college students showed more positive attitudes than male students. D- Collection mean The use of electronic media to collect data is still a novelty in scientific research, both in Argentina and abroad. It is worth noticing that results collected via internet mostly agree from those collected in paper in person, which would be in line with a growing literature on the field showing that the utility of electronic collection methods. Therefore, we suggest the use of this medium in some types of mental health research. E- Age Incidence. In the web-sample the older individuals presents higher levels of social phobia. This is a highly noticeable result, as this illness it is known to decrease with age. This particularity might be attributed to the voluntary selection of web-respondents. It is likely that people with social phobia would prefer to use this medium, so as to avoid direct personal interaction. F- Discipline of study incidence In accord with the literature, health students of the Spanish sample shown the highest levels of anxiety. It should be noticed that this population has been most widely studied, while we lack data on other disciplines. BENEFITS AND TRANSMISSION OF RESULTS. By bringing attention to the cultural baggage of the individual, which is somehow the language of his illness and how it is presented, the findings of this research could help the clinical practice. Any advance towards improving the comprehension of the patient will improve the response of the health providers. Another contribution is the translation and adaptation of the questionnaires used in the present research, which enriches the number of questionnaires available to local practitioners. The use of web devices provides an economic and effective research tool, a great help for transcultural and comparative studies in countries with stringent research budgets.

http://www.jpma.org.pk/full_article_text.php?article_id=1364

actors causing exam anxiety in medical students

April, 2008 Shireen Hashmat,Masooma

Hashmat,Sina Aziz ( Medical Unit III, Civil Hospital & Dow University of Health Ssciences, Karachi ) Farhana Amanullah ( Sindh Institute of Urology &Transplantation, Karachi )

Abstract Introduction: To assess examination related anxiety among final professional medical students by VAS (Visual Analogue Scale) and to determine the factors contributing to exam anxiety among final professional medical students Methods: A cross sectional study using structured self-administered questionnaire was carried out over four weeks in Dow Medical College using sample size of 120 students. Duration of study was four weeks in May 2006. Survey questionnaire consisted of VAS to measure exam anxiety and seventeen questions regarding life style, study style, psychological problems, and examination system. Result: A total of 120 students out of 200 (60%) filled in the questionnaire. There were 25.8% male and 74.2% female students. The average maximum Exam Anxiety marked on VAS was 6428. Among different factors contributing to exam anxiety, extensive course loads (90.8%), lack of physical exercise (90%) and long duration of exams (77.5%) were the most important factors reported by the students. Most of the students had no knowledge of exam-taking and anxiety-reduction techniques and majority of those who knew these strategies did not implement them. Conclusion: This study indicates moderate level of exam anxiety based on a Visual Analogue Scale in students of a medical college and also highlights factors such as extensive course load, lack of exercise and long duration of exams which contribute to Exam Anxiety (JPMA 58:167;2008). Introduction Exam anxiety is a set of responses that includes excessive worry, depression, nervousness and irrelevant thinking. to a class of 1 stimuli from an individual's experience of assessment/test and outcome. It is experienced by many students while undertaking any 2 exam. There are four main areas of reported stresses which can contribute to exam anxiety including life style issues, lack of required information, studying style and psychological factors.3 Life styles related issues include inadequate rest, insufficient physical activity, poor nutrition and lack of time management are found to be the contributing factors leading to exam anxiety as reported by many authors.4,5 Sujit et al6 have reported that lack of strategic studying i.e. ineffective studying style through inconsistent content coverage and studying all night before exams, inefficient studying which include lack of review and revising of course material studied are major factors leading to exam related anxiety. Psychological factors which contribute significantly to exam anxiety are negative and irrational thinking about exams, outcomes of exams and feelings of no control over exam situation (e.g. going blank during exam) are reported by many authors.7,8 Students' perception of extensive course load9 is also reported to cause exam anxiety in medical students. Examination 10 2 system itself is a major stress for students. At Dow Medical College, final year M,B;B,S exams consist of nine theory and six viva voce exams with two to three days gap in between each paper. It leads to total duration of eight to nine weeks which makes it an exam of nerves rather than knowledge. Anxiety and stress levels among medical students have been assessed using different scales including General Health 12 Questionnaire by Jenny Firth11, Spilberger's Test Anxiety Inventory by Rosal MC et al , Zung's depression scale by Supe AN et 14 15 al13 and Aga Khan University Anxiety and Depresson scale (AKUAD) by Inam SN et al and Khan MS et al in Pakistan. Visual Analogue Scale of anxiety has been validated for assessment of exam anxiety among medical students by Kidson et al16 and Thomas CS et al17 and since it is easy to administer as compared to above mentioned scales it was used in this particular study. 11 It has been observed that medical students have marked undue stresses during pre and examination period. The studies 18,19 previously done in Pakistan, highlighting exams and academics as major stressors in Pakistani Medical students did not give particular emphasis on exam anxiety it self, hence we decided to conduct this study to document if similar factors are present in our student population. The aim of this study was to assess examination related anxiety among final professional medical students by VAS (Visual Analogue Scale) and to determine the factors contributing to exam anxiety among final professional medical students. Methods

This study utilized a cross-sectional survey design and was conducted by administering a questionnaire to 200 students enrolled in final professional M.B.B.S at Dow Medical College/Dow University of Health Sciences, (Karachi). A non-probabilistic convenience sampling procedure was used. Data collection was done over four weeks in May 2006 during Final Professional Viva Voce Examination. Survey questionnaire consisted of VAS and seventeen questions regarding life style, study style, psychological problems, and examination system. It also consisted of information regarding age and sex. Exam Anxiety was measured using Visual Analogue Scale (VAS); which is used in research to assess subjective states like anxiety and pain. It consists of 10 cm line the ends of which are marked with signs indicating the extremes of symptoms (Zero indicating no anxiety and 100 indicating maximum anxiety). Students were asked to mark the level of their maximum anxiety on the most appropriate point on the scale. The scale is divided into three categories (Zero to 30 for mild symptoms, 40 to 60 for moderate symptoms and 70 to 100 for severe symptoms).20 Data were coded and analyzed using S.P.S.S software version 10. Results Two hundred self-administered questionnaires were distributed among medical students, out of which only 120 were received back and the response rate was 60%. There were 31 (25.8%) males and 89 (74.2%) females. Age of the medical students was 24.20.7 years. The mean level of anxiety on VAS was 64 28, 3314.7 for male students and 7231.2 for female students (p< 0.05). While observing different factors contributing to exam anxiety, extensive course loads, lack of physical activity, long duration of exams and improper nutrition were the most frequently reported factors by medical students. All factors (Table) were more common among female students with statistically significant (p< 0.05) differences found in factors which included: studying all night before exams, feeling no control over exam situation, improper nutrition and lack of exercise. Sixty seven students (55.8%) had no knowledge about exam taking and 84 (70%) had no knowledge about anxiety reduction techniques. Only 25% of those who were aware implemented these techniques. [(0)]

Discussion Exam anxiety is the emotional reaction that some students face before exams. The fear is not irrational, but excessive fear interferes with performance. Many researchers suggest that a little worry is good for students because it keeps them task oriented; however excessive worry on the other hand can be very debilitating and interferes with the results if not managed appropriately. This study supports many of the findings of previous studies; in that majority of the medical students experience some level of anxiety during exams.21 Female students have statistically significant (p<0.05) high levels of anxiety as compared to males.4,12,18 The results of the study show extensive course load and long duration of exams as the major contributors to exam anxiety. These findings are in disagreement with previous studies which showed psychological factor as the leading cause of exam anxiety.7,8,12 This may be due to the extensive course of Final Professional at this particular medical school including six major subjects: Medicine, Surgery, Paediatrics, Gynecology and Obstetrics, ENT and Ophthalmology contrary to only four or five subjects at other medical schools. The examination process is also very lengthy including nine Multiple Choice Question type theory papers and Viva Voce examination with multiple gaps in between leading to a total duration of about two or more months while in other medical school exams it hardly last longer than four weeks. Life style related issues including lack of physical activity and improper nutrition is significantly more common among female 12 students as already reported by other authors. This may be due to weight consciousness or psychological preponderance of 3 females towards eating disorders. It was an open comment made by majority of students that they have to study for six to eight hours without any pause or rest for preparation of their exams which has been found to have a negative impact on health.6 Psychological factors including irrational thoughts about exams and result, negative thinking, self criticism and feeling of no control over exam situation were reported by sixty to sixty-five percent students. Female students significantly outnumber male students in 11,22 having irrational thoughts about exams. These findings were similar to those reported by other authors indicating that among 12 anticipated sources of stress those dealing with perceived failure are highly stressful. Lack of preparation, memorizing text books, studying all night before exams, not revising and reviewing (all indicating lack of strategic studying and time management) were reported by more than half of medical students as factors contributing to their 6 anxiety during exams. These factors are reported to be significantly associated with academic performance in previous studies. Extensive course loads and comprehensive information required in today's academic curriculum necessitate effective study strategies for academic success.23 All night studying before exams is significantly higher among female students, as compared to 4,12,18 male students which could be explained by higher levels of stress reported in females as compared to males. Studying over night before exams creates fatigue and overall exertion among students which may lead to lower performance in examinations. A 24 full night sleep is necessary for refreshing students' mind and helps them enhance their overall performance.

Majority of students have no knowledge regarding exam-taking and anxiety- reduction techniques. Even those who know do not implement them. Moreover there are no counseling services available at the medical school to deal with students' issues. These services may be effective in helping students to improve their academic performance. The positive effect of such counseling services and stress management programs are frequently reported in literature.25 This study has a number of limitations including generlizability. The low response rate is possibly contributed to responder bias as students who were more stressed due to pressure of exams did not respond. Alternatively, students who were least stressed may have decided that they have little to contribute and so did not respond. The number of female students has significantly increased in medical colleges since the onset of open merit system. Thus they were the majority of participants of this study which could also bias the study results. Future studies should use larger sample size, qualitative measurement of anxiety levels and comparison of group of students with higher and lower anxiety levels for contributory factors to validate the results. Conclusion This study highlights the factors contributing to Exam Anxiety in medical students in Pakistan. Females suffered from higher stress than males during exams. Extensive course load and long duration of exams were the most common contributory factors. Moreover students lacked knowledge regarding exam taking and anxiety reduction techniques. Acknowledgement We would like to express our gratitude to Prof. Adibul Hasan Rizvi, Dr. Sajid Sultan and Dr. Ali Lanewala (SIUT), who have been a source of encouragement and inspiration and without their support, accomplishment of this manuscript was not possible.