Main biochemical substances

Proteins are the most abundant biological macromolecules, occurring in all cells and all parts of cells. Proteins also occur in great variety; thousands of different kinds, ranging in size from relatively small peptides to huge polymers with molecular weights in the millions, may be found in a single cell. Proteins are the molecular instruments through which genetic information is expressed. Relatively simple monomeric subunits provide the key to the structure of the thousands of different proteins. All proteins, whether from the most ancient lines of bacteria or from the most complex forms of life, are constructed from the same ubiquitous set of 20 aminoacids, covalently linked in characteristic linear sequences. Because each of these amino acids has a side chain with distinctive chemical properties, this group of 20 precursor molecules may be regarded as the alphabet in which the language of protein structure is written. What is most remarkable is that cells can produce proteins with strikingly different properties and activities by joining the same 20 amino acids in many different combinations and sequences. From these building blocks different organisms can make such widely diverse products as enzymes, hormones, antibodies, transporters, muscle fibers, the lens protein of the eye, feathers, spider webs, rhinoceros horn, milk proteins, antibiotics, mushroom poisons, and myriad other substances having distinct biological activities. Among these protein products, the enzymes are the most varied and specialized. Virtually all cellular reactions are catalyzed by enzymes. Carbohydrates are the most abundant biomolecules on Earth. Each year, photosynthesis converts more than 100 billion metric tons of C02 and H20 into cellulose and other plant products. Certain carbohydrates (sugar and starch) are a dietary staple in most parts of the world, and the oxidation of carbohydrates is the central energy-yielding pathway in most nonphotosynthetic cells. Insoluble carbohydrate polymers serve as structural and protective elements in the cell walls of bacteria and plants and in the connective tissues of animals. Other carbohydrate polymers lubricate skeletal joints and participate in recognition and adhesion between cells. More complex carbohydrate polymers covalently attached to proteins or lipids act as signals that determine the intracellular location or metabolic fate of these hybrid molecules, called glycoconjugates. Carbohydrates are polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones, or substances that yield such compounds on hydrolysis. Many, but not all, carbohydrates have the empirical formula (CH20)n; some also contain nitrogen, phosphorus, or sulfur. There are three major size classes of carbohydrates: monosaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides (the word saccharide is derived from the Greek sakcharon, meaning sugar ). Monosaccharides, or simple sugars, consist of a single polyhydroxy aldehyde or ketone unit. The most abundant monosaccharide in nature is the six-carbon sugar D-glucose, sometimes referred to as dextrose. Monosaccharides of more than four carbons tend to have cyclic structures.

Oligosaccharides consist of short chains of monosaccharide units, or residues, joined by characteristic linkages called glycosidic bonds. The most abundant are the disaccharides, with two monosaccharide units. Typical is sucrose (cane sugar), which consists of the six-carbon sugars D-glucose and D-fructose. All common monosaccharides and disaccharides have names ending with the suffix -ose. In cells, most oligosaccharides consisting of three or more units do not occur as free entities but are joined to nonsugar molecules (lipids or proteins) in glycoconjugates. The polysaccharides are sugar polymers containing more than 20 or so monosaccharide units, and some have hundreds or thousands of units. Some polysaccharides, such as cellulose, are linear chains; others, such as glycogen, are branched. Both glycogen and cellulose consist of recurring units of D-glucose, but they differ in the type of glycosidic linkage and consequently have strikingly different properties and biological roles. Biological lipids are a chemically diverse group of compounds, the common and defining feature of which is their insolubility in water. The biological functions of the lipids are as diverse as their chemistry. Fats and oils are the principal stored forms of energy in many organisms. Phospholipids and sterols are major structural elements of biological membranes. Other lipids, although present in relatively small quantities, play crucial roles as enzyme cofactors, electron carriers, light- absorbing pigments, hydrophobic anchors for proteins, chaperones to help membrane proteins fold, emulsifying agents in the digestive tract, hormones, and intracellular messengers.

Principies de Biochimie Proteinele sunt cele mai abundente macromol biologice ecules, care apar n toate celulele i toate componente ale celulelor. Pro teins, de asemenea, s apar ntr-o varietate mare, mii de tipuri diferite, variind n m rime de la peptide relativ mici pn la polimeri cu mas molecular mare de ordinul milioanelor, pot fi g site ntr-o singur celul . Proteinele sunt instrumentele moleculare prin care informa iile genetice TION este exprimat. Subunit i relativ simplu monomerice oferi cheia de la structura de mii de diferite pro teins. Toate proteinele, dac din cele mai vechi linii de bacterii sau de la formele cele mai complexe ale vie ii, sunt construite din acela i set omniprezent de 20 de aminoacizi, legate covalent n secven e caracteristic liniar . Deoarece fiecare dintre aceste aminoacizi are un lan de secundare asociate cu propriet i chimice distincte, acest grup de 20 de pre-cursorul molecule pot fi considerate ca alfabetul n care limba de structura de proteine este scris. Ceea ce este cel mai remarcabil este faptul ca celulele pot produce proteine cu propriet i izbitor de diferite i de leg turi activit i de c tre aderarea la acelea i 20 de aminoacizi n multe combina ii diferite ORL i secven e. Din aceste blocuri componente diferite organisme pot face astfel de produse pe scar larg diverse, precum enzime, hormoni, anticorpi, trans portari, fibrele musculare, proteina lentila a ochiului, feath ERS, spider webs, corn de rinocer, proteine din lapte, antibi otics, otr vuri ciuperci, precum i substan ele nenumarate alte avnd n activit i distincte biologice. Printre aceste produse de proteine, enzime sunt cele mai var IED i de specialitate. Practic, toate reac iile celulare sunt catalizate de enzime. Carbohidratii sunt biomolecule cele mai abundente de pe Pamant. n fiecare an, fotosinteza transform mai mult de 100 de miliarde de tone metrice de C02 i H20 n Cellu pierde i alte produse vegetale. Anumite carbohidra i (zah r i amidon) sunt o discontinue dietetice n cele mai multe p r i ale lumii, i oxidare de carbohidrati este cen Central cale de energie cu randament n majoritatea celulelor nonphotosynthetic. Polimeri Insolubil carbohidra i servi ca elemente structurale i de protec ie n pere ii celulelor de bacte RIA i a plantelor i n esuturile conjunctive de animale. Al i polimeri de carbohidra i lubrifia articula ii ale scheletului i s participe n semn de recunoa tere i de adeziune ntre celule.Polimeri mai complex de carbohidrati covalent ata at la proteine sau lipide actioneaza ca semnale c descuraja mina Locul de amplasare intracelular sau soarta metabolic a acestor molecule hibride, numite glycoconjugates. Carbohidratii sunt aldehide sau polyhydroxy KE tonuri, sau substan e care randamentul astfel de compu i pe HY drolysis . Multe, dar nu toate, au carbohidrati le pirical formula (CH20) n; unele con in, de asemenea, azot, fosfor, sulf sau. Exista trei clase majore m rime de carbohidrati: monozaharide, oligozaharide, i polysaccha plimbari (cuvntul "zaharide" este derivat din sakcharon greac , nsemnnd "de zah r"). Monozaharidele, sau zaharurile simple, const dintr-un singur polyhydroxy aldehid sau ceton unitate. Monozaharida mai abundent n natur este de zah r de ase carbon D-glucoz , uneori, re transferate ca dextroz . Monozaharide de mai mult de patru atomi de carbon tind s aib structuri ciclice. Oligozaharidele constau n lan uri scurte de mono unit i zaharide, sau reziduuri, al turi de leg turile caracteristic numit obliga iuni glicozidice. Mai abundente sunt dizaharide, cu unit i de monozaharida dou . Tipic este zaharoz (trestie de zah r), care const n zaharuri de ase carbon D-glucoz i D-fructoz . Toate monozaharide i dizaharide comune au nume se termin cu sufixul In celulele, cele mai multe oligozaharide compuse din trei sau mai multe unit i nu apar ca entit i liber "-sistem de operare.", Dar sunt unite la molecule nonsugar (lipide sau proteine), n glycoconjugates. Polizaharide sunt polimeri de zah r con ine ING mai mult de 20 de unit i de monozaharida, iar unele au sute sau mii de unit i. Unele charides polysac-, cum ar fi celuloza, sunt lan uri liniare, altii, cum ar fi glicogen, sunt ramificat . Att glicogen i cel lulose constau din unit i recurente de D-glucoz , dar ele difer n tipul de glicozidice leg tura i, prin urmare, au propriet i izbitor de diferite i roluri biologice. Lipide biologice sunt un grup chimic divers de com lire sterline, tr s tur comun i definitorie a,

care este insolubilitate lor n ap . Func iile biologice ale lipidelor sunt la fel de diverse ca chimia lor. Gr simi i uleiuri sunt formele principale de energie stocat n ganisms multe sau . Fosfolipidele i steroli sunt elemente structurale majore ale membranelor biologice. Alte lipide, Al de i prezente n cantit i relativ mici, joac roluri cru financiar cofactori ca enzima, transportatorii de electroni, lumina-absorbind pigmen i, ancore hidrofobe pentru proteine, "chaperones" pentru a ajuta la proteine membrana ori, emulsi fying agen ii digestiv tractului, hormoni, i mesageri intracelulari.