Chemistry 101 Chapter 5 Notes: Introduction to Reactions in Aqueous Solutions

y Aqueous Solution: Ionic or molecular compounds dissolved in water o Ionic compounds dissociate into ions o Molecular compounds polarize y Electrolytes: Substances that conduct electricity when dissolved in water y Ions: Charged particles that carry electrons from one electrode to the other through water, completing the circuit y Anode: Positively charged electrode; attracts negative charges y Cathode: Negatively charged electrode; attracts positive charges y Strength of Electrolytes: o Strong Electrolytes  Dissolve in water  Dissociate completely into ions  Ex. Soluble ionic salts, strong acids, strong bases o Weak Electrolytes  Dissolve in water  Do not dissociate completely into ions  Ex. Weak acids, weak bases o Non Electrolytes  Dont dissolve in or produce ions in water o Ex. Insoluble ionic salts, molecular compounds, solids y When writing equations to describe aqueous solutions, reactions involving strong electrolytes should be written using a single arrow in the forward direction, while weak electrolyte reactions should be written using a double arrow pointing in opposite directions. y Precipitation Reactions: Chemical reactions that result in the formation of an insoluble precipitate (solid). These are usually formed when combining solutions of two soluble salts. y Ionic Equations: Chemical equations that describe how ionic compounds dissolve in water and the reactions that occur when aqueous ions are mixed. y Molecular Equation: Chemical equation in which all substances are represented by the formulas for the compounds even though individual ions exist in the solution. y Total Ionic Equation: Chemical equation in which ionic compounds are written as ions in solution. y Spectator Ions: Ions that are physically present in a reaction, yet play no part in it. Can be cancelled in net ionic equations.

y Net Ionic Equation Chemical equation showing only ions that are changed in the reaction. Spectator ions are not shown. y Solubility: The amount of a substance that will dissolve in another substance. o Usually the second substance is water. o Some ionic compounds do not dissolve at all in water (INSOLUBLE). It takes energy to break apart the compound and if not enough energy is gained by the formation of the aqueous ions, the substance wont dissolve. o Solubility Rules can be used to predict the extent to which an ionic compound is soluble. 1. Salts of group 1 cations (with some exceptions for Li) and the ammonium cation are soluble. 2. Nitrates, acetates, and perchlorates are soluble. 3. Salts of silver, lead, and mercury(I) are insoluble. 4. Chlorides, bromides, and iodides are insoluble. 5. Carbonates, phosphates, sulfides, oxides, and hydroxides are insoluble. (Sulfides of group 2 cations and hydroxides of calcium, strontium, and barium are slightly. 6. Sulfates are soluble except for those of calcium, strontium, and barium. y Acid: A substance that produces H+ ions when dissolved in water (Arrhenius definition) o Sour taste o Reactive with metals and carbonates o Strong acids completely ionize in water  HCl  HBr  HI  H2SO4  HNO3  HClO4 o Weak acids do not completely ionize in water o Actually, H+ ions do not exist in water in hydrated form the way that other ions we have discussed do. Instead, the hydrogen ions form a covalent bond with a water molecule, and a hydronium ion is formed (H3O+). y Base: A substance that produces OH- ions when dissolved in water o Bitter taste o Slippery feel

o Strong bases are ionic salts containing the OH- ion that completely ionize in water  Group 1 & 2 hydroxide compounds o Weak bases produce some OH- ions in solution  All other bases Acid Base Reactions o Neutralization  Acid and Base yield salt and water Oxidation Reduction (Redox) Reaction: A chemical reaction in which electrons are transferred from one element to another. Redox reactions also include reactions in which an elements oxidation state changes. o Oxidation: Loss of electrons; the oxidation state increases o Reduction: Gain of electrons; the oxidation state decreases o Redox reactions always occur in pairs o Half Reaction: Redox reaction divided into 2 separate reactions, oxidation and reduction Balancing Redox Reactions 1. Write half reactions. 2. For each half reaction: a. Balance the atoms of all the elements except H and O. b. Balance O using H2O. c. Balance H using H+. d. Balance charge using electrons. 3. If necessary, equalize the number of electrons in the half reactions by multiplying 1 of the equations through by an appropriate integer. 4. Add the half reactions, cancelling species common to both sides of the overall equation. 5. Check that atom numbers and charges balance. a. Stop here for redox reaction in aqueous acidic solutions. 6. For redox reactions in basic solutions add a number of OH- ions equal to the number of H+ ions to both sides of the overall equation. 7. On the side of the overall equation containing both H+ ions and OHions, combine to form water. Cancel water appearing on both sides of the equation if necessary. 8. Check that atom numbers and charges balance. Oxidizing Agent (Oxidant): Element (or compound containing element) whose oxidation state decreases in a redox reaction o Causes another species in the reaction to be reduced o Elements with high oxidations states are good oxidizing agents

y Reducing Agent (Reductant): Element (or compound containing element) whose oxidation state increases in a redox reaction o Causes another species in the reaction to be oxidized o Elements with low oxidations states are good reducing agents y Disproportionation Reactions: Redox reactions in which the same element is oxidized and reduced at the same time. o Ex. Hydrogen peroxide yields water and oxygen gas; thiosulfate yields solid sulfur, sodium dioxide, and water y Assigning Oxidation States 1. An atom or molecule in its elemental state has an oxidation state of 0. 2. The sum of oxidation states in: a. a neutral compound is 0. b. a polyatomic ion is equal to the charge on the polyatomic ion. 3. In a compound, group 1 metals have an oxidation state of +1 and group 2 metals have an oxidation state of +2 4. In a compound, fluorine has an oxidation state of -1. 5. In a compound, hydrogen usually has an oxidation state of +1. 6. In a compound, oxygen usually has an oxidation state of -2. 7. In binary compounds with metals, group 17 elements have an oxidation state of -1; group 16 of -2; and group 15 of -3. y Titrations: A reaction carried out by the carefully controlled addition of one solution to another. o Allows for the determination of an unknown concentration o Involves a titrant of known molarity in a buret, and a solution of unknown molarity in a volumetric flask. o Equivalence Point: Point in titration when both reactants have reacted completely o Indicator: A substance added to the volumetric flask during a titration that changes color at the equivalence point of the reaction