What is the difference between foam concrete and cement grout?

Foam concrete is mainly composed of cement, water and air pores with filler (such as PFA, sand etc.) without any course aggregates. The air pores are formed by agitating air with a foaming agent. The typical size of air bubbles is around 0.3-0.4mm in diameter. For cement grout, it mainly consists of cement and water. Foam concrete is characterized by have low density and low cost when compared with normal concrete. The density of foam concrete is around 400 1600 kg/m3. Therefore, the low density enhances low dead load and has extensive applications when low loadings are required. Foam concrete does not require compacting and hence imposes no lateral forces on adjacent structures. Moreover, it also displays good resistance to water and produces high level of sound and thermal insulation. However, it suffers from the demerit that it have low compressive strength only (e.g. less than 15 MPa) which is drastically different from cement grout which possesses high compressive strength. There is recent development of foam concrete as road sub-base. The mix design for M35 Grade of Concrete for pile foundations provided here is for reference purpose only. Actual site conditions vary and thus this should be adjusted as per the location and other factors. Grade of Concrete : M35 Characteristic Strength (Fck) : 35 Mpa Standard Deviation : 1.91 Mpa* Target Mean Strength : T.M.S.= Fck +1.65 x S.D. (from I.S 456-2000) = 35+ 1.651.91 = 38.15 Mpa Test Data For Material: Aggregate Type : Crushed Specific Gravity Cement : 3.15 Coarse Aggregate : 2.67 Fine Aggregate : 2.62 Water Absorption: Coarse Aggregate : 0.5% Fine Aggregate : 1.0 % MIX DESIGN Take Sand content as percentage of total aggregates = 36% Select Water Cement Ratio = 0.43 for concrete grade M35 (From Fig 2. of I.S. 10262- 1982) Select Water Content = 172 Kg (From IS: 10262 for 20 mm nominal size of aggregates Maximum Water Content = 186 Kg/ M3 ) Hence, Cement Content= 172 / 0.43 = 400 Kg / M3 Formula for Mix Proportion of Fine and Coarse Aggregate: 1000(1-a0) = {(Cement Content / Sp. Gr. Of Cement) + Water Content +(Fa / Sp. Gr.* Pf )} 1000(1-a0) = {(Cement Content / Sp. Gr. Of Cement) + Water Content +Ca / Sp. Gr.* Pc )}

Where Ca = Coarse Aggregate Content Fa = Fine Aggregate Content Pf = Sand Content as percentage of total Aggregates = 0.36 Pc = Coarse Aggregate Content as percentage of total Aggregates. = 0.64 a0 = Percentage air content in concrete (As per IS :10262 for 20 mm nominal size of aggregates air content is 2 %) = 0.02 Hence, 1000(1-0.02) = {(400 /3.15) + 172 +(Fa / 2.62 x 0.36)} Fa = 642 Kg/ Cum As the sand is of Zone II no adjustment is required for sand. Sand Content = 642 Kg/ Cum 1000(1-0.02) = {(400 /3.15) + 172 +(Ca / 2.67 x 0.64)} Hence, Ca = 1165 Kg/ Cum From combined gradation of Coarse aggregates it has been found out that the proportion of 53:47 of 20 mm & 10 mm aggregates produces the best gradation as per IS: 383. Hence, 20 mm Aggregates = 619 Kg And 10 mm Aggregates = 546 Kg To obtain slump in the range of 150-190 mm water reducing admixture brand SP430 from Fosroc with a dose of 0.3 % by weight of Cement shall be used. Hence the Mix Proportion becomes: Cem W/C 400 0.43 1 Water 172 0.43 Sand 635 1.6 20mm 619 1.547 10mm 564 1.36 Admix 1.2 0.003 Units Kg/ M3 Cement : Sand: Coarse Aggregates = 1 : 1.6 : 2.907

Why are holes sometimes present in the base plates connected to footings? The surface of footings is normally quite rough so that some leveling has to be carried out for the base plates. The interface between the base plates and footings after leveling is subsequently filled with grout. During grouting, trapping of air may occur at the underside of base plates and this leads to the formation of cavities and uneven contact surfaces on which the base plates are rested. As such, some holes may be drilled in the base plate to avoid the occurrence of air trapping.

What is the purpose of carrying out water absorption test for precast concrete pipes? Cement will mix with more water than is required to eventually combine during hydration of cement paste. As such, some voids will be left behind after the hydration process which affects the strength and durability of concrete. With the presence of air voids in concrete, it is vulnerable to penetration and attack by aggressive chemicals. Good quality concrete is characterized by having minimal voids left by excess water and therefore, water absorption test for precast concrete pipes is adopted for checking the quality of concrete in terms of density and imperviousness. Can grout replace concrete in normal structure? The mixture of cement and water alone cannot replace concrete (Longman Scientific and Technical (1987)) because: (i) Shrinkage of grout is several times that of concrete with the same mass. (ii) The effect of creep of grout is far more than that of concrete. (iii) Heat of hydration of cement with water is more than normal concrete and this leads to the problem of severe cracking. What are the differences between epoxy grout, cement grout and cement mortar? Epoxy grout consists of epoxy resin, epoxy hardener and sand/aggregates. In fact, there are various types of resin used in construction industry like epoxy, polyester, polyurethane etc. Though epoxy grout appears to imply the presence of cement material by its name, it does not contain any cement at all. On the other hand, epoxy hardener serves to initiate the hardening process of epoxy grout. It is commonly used for repairing hairline cracks and cavities in concrete structures and can be adopted as primer or bonding agent. Cement grout is formed by mixing cement powder with water in which the ratio of cement of water is more or less similar to that of concrete. Owing to the relatively high water content, the mixing of cement with water produces a fluid suspension which can be poured under base plates or into holes. Setting and hardening are the important processes which affect the performance of cement grout. Moreover, the presence of excessive voids would also affect the strength, stiffness and permeability of grout. It is versatile in application of filling voids and gaps in structures. Cement mortar is normally a mixture of cement, water and sand (typical proportion by weight is 1:0.4:3). It is intended that cement mortar is constructed by placing and packing rather than by pouring. They are used as bedding for concrete kerbs in roadwork. They are sometimes placed under base plates where a substantial proportion of load is designed to be transferred by the bedding to other members. Can rapid-hardening cement be used in water-retaining structures? Normal Portland cement is usually adopted in water retaining structures. Where sulphates or chemical agents are anticipated in groundwater, sulphate-resisting cement may be used to guard against sulphate and chemical attack. However, it is normally not advisable to use rapid-hardening cement in water-retaining structures because it involves greater evolution of heat during hydration process, leading to increased shrinkage cracks which form the location of potential leakage in the structure. It is only applicable in cold weather condition where the rate of hydration is low. What is the difference between plastic shrinkage cracks and crazing cracks? Plastic shrinkage cracks are caused by a rapid loss of water from concrete surface before setting of concrete such that the rate of evaporation of surface water is higher than the rate of replacement of upward rising water. Tensile force is developed at concrete surface which forms plastic shrinkage cracks when the concrete starts to stiffen.

Plastic shrinkage cracks appear to be parallel to each other with spacing of about 300mm to 1m. The cracks are shallow and generally do not intersect the perimeter of concrete slab. Crazing is the formation of a network of fine cracks on concrete surface caused by early shrinkage of surface layer. The pattern of crazing cracks is in the form of irregular hexagon. The cause of crazing cracks is the shrinkage of concentrated dense cement paste at concrete surface. A wet mix tends to depress the coarse aggregates and form a highly concentrated cement paste and fines on surface. Hence, the difference between plastic shrinkage cracks and crazing cracks lies in the fact that crazing cracks arise from the shrinkage of weak material such as laitance in concrete surface while plastic shrinkage cracks appear even in normal concrete surface. Is it desirable to use concrete of very high strength i.e. exceeding 60MPa? What are the potential problems associated with such high strength concrete? To increase the strength of concrete, say from 40MPa to 80MPa, it definitely helps in improving the structural performance of the structure by producing a denser, more durable and higher load capacity concrete. The size of concrete members can be significantly reduced resulting in substantial cost savings. However, an increase of concrete strength is also accompanied by the occurrence of thermal cracking. With an increase in concrete strength, the cement content is increased and this leads to higher thermal strains. Consequently, additional reinforcement has to be introduced to control these additional cracks caused by the increase in concrete strength. Moreover, the ductility of concrete decreases with an increase in concrete strength. Attention should be paid during the design of high strength concrete to increase the ductility of concrete. In addition, fire resistance of high strength concrete is found to be less than normal strength concrete as suggested by Odd E. Gjorv (1994). Though the tensile strength of high strength concrete is higher than that of normal concrete, the rate of increase of tensile strength is not proportional to the increase of compressive strength. For normal concrete, tensile strength is about one-tenth of compressive strength. However, for high strength concrete, it may only drop to 5% of compressive strength. Moreover, owing to a low aggregate content of high strength concrete, creep and shrinkage increases. Can a concrete structure be completely free of expansion joints and contraction joints? Consider that the concrete structure is not subject to the problem of differential settlement. For contraction joints, it may be possible to design a concrete structure without any contraction joints. By using sufficient steel reinforcement to spread evenly the crack width over the span length of the structure, it may achieve the requirement of minimum crack width and cause no adverse impact to the aesthetics of the structure. However, it follows that the amount of reinforcement required is higher than that when with sufficient contraction joints. For expansion joints, the consequence of not providing such joints may be difficult to cater for. For example, a concrete structure has the coefficient of thermal expansion of 910-6 /sup>oC and a Youngs modulus of 34.5kN/mmsup>2 With an increase of temperature of 20sup>oC and it is restricted to free expansion, then the structure is subject to an axial stress of 6.21MPa. If the structure is very slender (e.g. concrete carriageway), buckling may occur. Therefore, the structure has to be designed to take up these thermal stresses if expansion joints are not provided. However, for water retaining structures, most of them are not affected by weather conditions because they are insulated from the water they contain internally and soil backfill that surround them. Therefore, it is expected that a smaller amount of thermal movement will occur when compared with normal exposed concrete structure. Consequently, expansion joints may be omitted in this case with the view that the compressive stress induced by thermal expansion toughens the structure to limit the development of tensile stress. Why are contraction joints in concrete pavement normally designed to be unsealed? For unreinforced concrete pavement, the contraction joint is an approximately 3mm wide groove with a depth of about one-third to one-fourth of slab thickness and a regular spacing of normally 5m. The grooves are designed

such that they are too narrow for stones to fall into when the cracks are open due to the contraction of concrete. The groove location is a plane of weakness and the groove acts as a potential crack-inducing device where any potential cracks due to shrinkage and thermal contraction may form will be confined to the base of the groove. It will not cause any unpleasant visual appearance on the exposed surface of unreinforced concrete pavement. The above-mentioned contraction joints can be designed as unsealed. These grooves are very narrow so that stones can hardly get into these grooves even when the joint undergoes contraction. The fine particles or grit entering into the groove are likely to be sucked out by the passing vehicles. The joints can be self-cleansing and it may not be necessary to seal the joints for fear of attracting the accumulation of rubbish and dirt What is the purpose of reinforcement in concrete roads? The main purposes of reinforcement in concrete roads are: (i) to control the development and pattern of cracks in concrete pavement. (ii) to reduce the spacing of joints. In general, joints and reinforcement in concrete structures are common design measures to cater for thermal and shrinkage movement. Hence, the inclusion of reinforcement allows the formation of tiny cracks in concrete pavement and this allows wider spacing of joints. What is the function of a sand layer underlying paving slab/interlocking blocks? Normally after the laying of sub-base layer of the paving slab/interlocking blocks, a 30mm thick sand bedding is screeded and tamped over the pavement area. Then paving slabs are laid horizontally with joints of 2-3mm wide and are laid in uphill direction. After completing the laying of paving slabs, sand used for filling joints is spread over the surface of the units and brushed into the joints such that all joints are completely filled. The paving slabs are then bedded into final position by using plate vibrators. The sand layer serves the same purpose of normal blinding layer under concrete structure: (i) Provide a level and flat surface for the paving slab/interlocking blocks to lay on; (ii) Protect the foundation (i.e. underground subgrade and sub-base layer) against adverse outside conditions (e.g. bad weather) during construction of the laying work of paving slab/interlocking blocks.

In fact, the amount of reinforcement in concrete slab is not substantial and its contribution to the structural strength of roads is not significant.

Does sub-base of concrete carriageway provide strength support?

Basically, sub-base for a concrete carriageway is provided for the following reasons: (i) It provides a smooth and even surface between the subgrade and concrete slab. This avoids the problem of uneven frictional stresses arising from the uneven interface under thermal and shrinkage movement. It also improves the uniformity of support provided to concrete slab to enhance even distribution of wheel load to the subgrade. (ii) For heavily trafficked carriageways with frequent occurrence of a high water table, it serves to prevent the occurrence of mud pumping on clayey and silty subgrade. The loss of these clayey soils through carriageway joints such as contraction and expansion joints will cause structural failure of concrete slab under heavy traffic load. The stiffness of concrete slab accounts for the strength of rigid road structure. It is normally uneconomical to employ sub-base as part of the strength provider because a much thicker layer of sub-base has to be adopted to reduce the thickness of concrete slab by a small amount. Hence, it is more cost-effective to increase the depth of concrete slab rather than to enhance foundation strength in order to achieve a higher load-carrying capacity of the concrete pavement. Can the sand bedding be omitted in paving block pavement? In the paving block pavement, it normally consists of the following main elements: sub-base, sand bedding and paving blocks. Sub-base is the main structural element to take up traffic load and spread it into larger area so that the traffic stress is small enough for subgrade to sustain. Sand bedding is used for providing correct line and level for paving blocks to lie on. To achieve this, screeding of bedding layer is implemented so that the paving blocks could be laid directly on it without the need of further leveling. The large range of particle sizes associated with sub-base renders it unsuitable to provide a uniform surface with correct level for paving blocks to lie on. Some concrete specification requires the testing of compressive strength for both 7 days and 28 days. Why? 7-day compressive strength test results are usually not used for acceptance purpose but for information only. Instead, 28-day compressive strength test results are commonly adopted for acceptance purpose. 7-day compressive strength test results are often used to monitor the gain of early strength and they are estimated to be about 64% to 70% of the 28-day strength. As such, it serves as a warning signal to both concrete producers and contractors should the 7-day compressive strength test results are far less than 75% of the 28-day strength. Nowadays, most concrete placement schedule are very tight and it is of paramount importance for contractors to get to know as soon as possible the occurrence of low 7-day compressive strength test results. As such, the contractor could implement suitable measures promptly to get better quality control procedures at construction site and to monitor closely on sampling, molding, and testing of the test cubes so as to avoid the recurrence of the production of low-strength concrete in the coming concrete batches. Rebound Hammer Test REBOUND HAMMER Rebound hammer test is done to find out the compressive strength of concrete by using rebound hammer as per IS: 13311 (Part 2) 1992. The underlying principle of the rebound hammer test is The rebound of an elastic mass depends on the hardness of the surface against which its mass strikes. When the plunger of the rebound hammer is pressed against the surface of the concrete, the pring-controlled mass rebounds and the extent of such a rebound depends upon the surface hardness of the concrete. The surface hardness and therefore the rebound is taken to be related to the compressive strength of the concrete. The rebound value is read

from a graduated scale and is designated as the rebound number or rebound index. The compressive strength can be read directly from the graph provided on the body of the hammer. Procedure to determine strength of hardened concrete by rebound hammer.

i) Before commencement of a test, the rebound hammer should be tested against the test anvil, to get reliable results, for which the manufacturer of the rebound hammer indicates the range of readings on the anvil suitable for different types of rebound hammer. ii) Apply light pressure on the plunger it will release it from the locked position and allow it to extend to the ready position for the test. iii) Press the plunger against the surface of the concrete, keeping the instrument perpendicular to the test surface. Apply a gradual increase in pressure until the hammer impacts. (Do not touch the button while depressing the plunger. Press the button after impact, in case it is not convenient to note the rebound reading in that position.) iv) Take the average of about 15 readings.

Interpretation of Results The rebound reading on the indicator scale has been calibrated by the manufacturer of the rebound hammer for horizontal impact, that is, on a vertical surface, to indicate the compressive strength. When used in any other position, appropriate correction as given by the manufacturer is to be taken into account. Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Method ULTRASONIC PULSE VELOCITY This test is done to assess the quality of concrete by ultrasonic pulse velocity method as per IS: 13311 (Part 1) 1992. The underlying principle of this test is The method consists of measuring the time of travel of an ultrasonic pulse passing through the concrete being tested. Comparatively higher velocity is obtained when concrete quality is good in terms of density, uniformity, homogeneity etc. Procedure to determine strength of hardened concrete by Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity. i) Preparing for use: Before switching on the V meter, the transducers should be connected to the sockets marked TRAN and REC. The V meter may be operated with either: a) the internal battery, b) an external battery or c) the A.C line. ii) Set reference: A reference bar is provided to check the instrument zero. The pulse time for the bar is engraved on it. Apply a smear of grease to the transducer faces before placing it on the opposite ends of the bar. Adjust the SET REF control until the reference bar transit time is obtained on the instrument read-out.

iii) Range selection: For maximum accuracy, it is recommended that the 0.1 microsecond range be selected for path length upto 400mm. iv) Pulse velocity: Having determined the most suitable test points on the material to be tested, make careful measurement of the path length L. Apply couplant to the surfaces of the transducers and press it hard onto the surface of the material. Do not move the transducers while a reading is being taken, as this can generate noise signals and errors in measurements. Continue holding the transducers onto the surface of the material until a consistent reading appears on the display, which is the time in microsecond for the ultrasonic pulse to travel the distance L. The mean value of the display readings should be taken when the units digit hunts between two values. Pulse velocity=(Path length/Travel time) v) Separation of transducer leads: It is advisable to prevent the two transducer leads from coming into close contact with each other when the transit time measurements are being taken. If this is not done, the receiver lead might pick-up unwanted signals from the transmitter lead and this would result in an incorrect display of the transit time.

Interpretation of Results The quality of concrete in terms of uniformity, incidence or absence of internal flaws, cracks and segregation, etc,indicative of the level of workmanship employed, can thus be assessed using the guidelines given below, which have been evolved for characterizing the quality of concrete in structures in terms of the ultrasonic pulse velocity.

Various Lab Test On Concrete

There are many tests which are conducted to check the quality of concrete. These tests are basically divided into two categories 1. Various Lab Test On Fresh Concrete. Under these, we have the following tests a) Slump Test Workability b) Compacting Factor c) Vee- Bee Test 2.Various Lab Test On Hardened Concrete. There are two kinds of tests which are done on hardened concrete. These are non destructive test and destructive tests. In non destructive test, the sample is not destroyed and this test is very useful in determining the strength of existing buildings or structures where as in destructive test a sample is made and then destroyed to find out the strength of concrete.Compression test is the example of destructive test. Here are the nondestructive tests. a) Rebound Hammer Test b) Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Test In carrying out compression test for concrete, should test cubes or test cylinders be adopted? Basically, the results of compression test carried out by using cubes are higher than that by cylinders. In compression test, the failure mode is in the form of tensile splitting induced by uniaxial compression. However, since the concrete samples tend to expand laterally under compression, the friction developed at the concretemachine interface generates forces which apparently increase the compressive strength of concrete. However, when the ratio of height to width of sample increases, the effect of shear on compressive strength becomes smaller. This explains why the results of compression test by cylinders are lower than that of cubes. Reference is made to Longman Scientific and Technical (1987). In concrete compression test, normally 150mm x150mm x150mm concrete cube samples is used for testing. Why isnt 100mm x100mm x100mm concrete cube samples used in the test instead of 150mmx150mmx150mm concrete cube samples?

Basically, the force supplied by a concrete compression machine is a definite value. For normal concrete strength application, say below 50MPa, the stress produced by a 150mmx150mmx150mm cube is sufficient for the machine to crush the concrete sample. However, if the designed concrete strength is 100MPa, under the same force (about 2,000kN) supplied by the machine, the stress under a 150mmx150mmx150mm cube is not sufficient to crush the concrete cube. Therefore, 100mmx100mmx100mm concrete cubes are used instead to increase the applied stress to crush the concrete cubes. For normal concrete strength, the cube size of 150mmx150mmx150mm is already sufficient for the crushing strength of the machine. What are the IS Codes used for Flooring, Wall Finishing And Roofing? Here is the list of the Indian Standard codes required by an engineers if they are looking for Flooring, Wall Finishing And Roofing:IS 653:1992 Specification for linoleum sheets and tiles IS 657:1982 Specification for materials for use in the manufacture of magnesium oxychloride flooring compositions

IS 658:1982 Code of practice for magnesium oxychloride composition floors IS 809:1992 Specification for rubber flooring materials for general purposes IS 1195:2002 Bitumen-mastic for flooring Specification IS 1196:1978 Code of practice for laying bitumen mastic flooring IS 1197:1970 Code of practice for laying of rubber floors IS 1198:1982 Code of practice for laying, fixing and maintenance of linoleum floors Continue Reading Filed under Civil Engineering Information | 0 Comments What are the IS Codes used for Building Lime And Gypsum Products? Here are the IS codes which an engineer might require if he or she is dealing with Building Lime And Gypsum Products:IS 712:1984 Specification for building limes IS 1624:1986 Method of field testing of building lime IS 1635:1992 Code of practice for field slaking of building lime and preparation of putty IS 1849(Part 1/Sec 1):1990 Guide for design and installation of vertical mixed feed lime kiln: Part 1 Limestone Section 1 Masonry type shaft IS 1849(Part 1/Sec 2):1991 Guide for design and installation of vertical mixed feed type lime kiln: Part 1 For limestone Section 2 RCC type shaft Continue Reading Filed under Civil Engineering Information | 0 Comments List of IS Codes for Sanitary Appliances And Water Fittings Here are the IS codes which cater to the need of civil engineering relating to Sanitary Appliances And Water Fittings :IS 651:2007 Glazed stoneware pipe and fittings Specification IS 771(Part 1):1979 Specification for glazed fire-clay sanitary appliances: Part 1 General requirements IS 771(Part 2):1985 Specification for glazed fire-clay sanitary appliances: Part 2 Specific requirements of kitchen and laboratory sinks IS 771(Part 3/Sec 1):1979 Specification for glazed fire clay sanitary appliances : Part 3 Specific requirements of urinals, Section 1 Slab urinals IS 771(Part 3/Sec 2):1985 Specification for glazed fire-clay sanitary appliances: Part 3 Specific requirements of urinals: Section 2 Stall urinals

IS 771(Part 4):1979 Specification for glazed fire-clay sanitary appliances: Part 4 Specific requirements of postmortem slabs IS 771(Part 5):1979 Specification for glazed fire clay sanitary appliances: Part 5 Specific requirements of shower trays IS 771(Part 6):1979 Specification for glazed fire-clay sanitary appliances: Part 6 Specific requirements of bedpan sinks IS 771(Part 7):1981 Specification for glazed fire-clay sanitary appliances: Part 7 Specific requirements of slop sinks IS 772:1973 Specification for general requirements for enamelled cast iron sanitary appliances Continue Reading Filed under Civil Engineering Information | 0 Comments List of IS Codes for Cement and Concrete Here are the IS codes which cater to the need of civil engineering relating to Cement and Concrete:IS 269:1989 Specification for ordinary Portland cement, 33 grade IS 383:1970 Specification for coarse and fine aggregates from natural sources for concrete IS 455:1989 Specification for Portland slag cement IS 456:2000 Code of practice for plain and reinforced concrete IS 457:1957 Code of practice for general construction of plain and reinforced concrete for dams and other massive structures IS 516:1959 Method of test for strength of concrete IS 650:1991 Specification for standard sand for testing of cement IS 1199:1959 Methods of sampling and analysis of concrete IS 1343:1980 Code of practice for prestressed concrete IS 1344:1981 Specification for calcined clay pozzolana Continue Reading Filed under Civil Engineering Information | 0 Comments What is Efflorescence in Bricks and Concrete? Paper of Efflorescence in Bricks and Efflorescence and Leaching in Concrete by Sir. Kaushal Kishore Materials Engineer, Roorkee Efflorescence is the usual terms for deposit of soluble salts, formed in or near the surface of a porous material, as a result of evaporation of water in which they have been dissolved.

EFFLORESCENCE IN BRICKS: Usually sulphate of magnesium, calcium, sulphate and carbonate (and sometimes chloride and nitrates) of sodium and potassium are found in efflorescence. These salts may be traced to the brick itself, sand used in construction, the foundation soil, ground water, water used in the construction and loose earth left over in contact with brick work. Bricks with magnesium sulphate content higher than 0.05 percent should not be used in construction. Soluble salt content in sand (chloride and sulphate together) should not exceed 0.1 percent. Water, if it finds access to brick work, moves along its pores by capillary action and carries with it dissolved salts. As the solution evaporates from the exposed surface of the brick work, the salts are left as deposit on the surface or on layers just below it. Disintegration or flaking of the brick surface is caused by the mechanical force exerted by salts as these crystallize just below the exposed surface. Magnesium sulphate, in particular, disintegrates bricks and pushes out plaster. REMEDIES: 1. Well fired bricks should be used in construction. 2. Sand should be tested for its salt content. 3. Proper D.P.C. should be provided in the building. 4. Efflorescence on brick work traceable to salts in the materials can be removed by dry brushing and washing repeatedly. Such efflorescence may re-appear in dry season but usually are less in intensity. Finally these disappear as the salt content of the bricks is gradually leached out. TESTING BRICKS FOR EFFLORESCENCE Distilled water to be filled in a dish of suitable size. The dish should be made of glass, porcelain or glazed stone ware. Place the end of the bricks in the dish, the depth of immersion in water being 25 mm. Place the whole arrangements in a warm (for example, 20 to 30oC) well ventilated room until all the water in the dish is absorbed by the specimen and the surface water evaporate. Cover the dish with suitable cover, so that excessive evaporation from the dish may not occur. When the water has been absorbed and bricks appear to be dry, place a similar quantity of water in the dish and allow it to evaporate as before. Examine the bricks for efflorescence after the second evaporation and report the results as: (a) NIL When there is not perceptible deposit of efflorescence. (b) SLIGHT- Not more than 10% area of the brick covered with a thin deposit of salt. (c) MODERATE- Covering upto 50% area of the brick. (d) HEAVY- Covering 50% or more but unaccompanied by powdering or flacking of the brick surface. (e) SERIOUS- When, there is a heavy deposit of salts accompanied by powdering and/or flacking of the exposed surfaces. EFFLORESCENCE AND LEACHING IN CONCRETE: When water percolates through poorly compacted concrete or through cracks or along badly made joints, the lime compounds with in the concrete leached out which leads to the formation of salt deposits on the surface of concrete, known as efflorescence. This caused primarily by calcium hydroxide Ca(OH)2 one of the hydration products and slightly soluble in water, migrating to concrete surface through the capillary system. After evaporation, the solid Ca (OH)2 reacts with the atmospheric carbon dioxide CO2 to form calcium carbonate CaCO3, a white deposit on the concrete surface. Early efflorescence can be removed with a brush and water. Heavy deposits may require acid treatment of the surface of the concrete. The acid used is HCl diluted from the concentrated form in a ration of 1:20 or 1:10. The action of the acid stops when it has been used up by the reaction with lime, but the concrete should be washed in order to remove the salts which have been formed. Efflorescence and leaching in concrete is harmful. In addition to blemish and ugly appearance, the process of carbonation of concrete is accelerated. In reinforced concrete, the chances of corrosion of steel are increased due to carbonation and higher permeability of concrete. It is therefore necessary the concrete making materials should be of good quality, mineral and chemical admixtures preferably be used, properly proportioned (preferable design mixes) as per required durability and grade of concrete. All the materials should be properly mixed, placed, compacted, finished and cured.

What are Green Buildings? INTRODUCTION: A green building is that building which is constructed at a well planed location with proper design and sustainable materials. Fitted and painted with eco friendly materials. The building should gives to its occupants healthy and comfortable environment in all climates. It remains cool in summer, warm in winter, inside fully protected from rain, gives natural pollution free air and light through doors, windows and ventilators without any artificial means. For particular requirements it has solar, wind power and eco friendly electrical, mechanical etc. devices. A green building should have all safety devices. It should be provided with potable water, having proper drainage, sewerage and rainwater harvesting system. The building should be surrounded with trees, plants and grass to provide natural greenery. Can the above building be possible when day by day the population in India is increasing at a very fast rate? The facts may be found from the following table. Table: 1 Human population per sq.km of country area: Country India China U.S.A. Year 2009 350 132 34

1947 121

2049 581 141 49

With the increase in the population the house demand will also increase. For India it is of the top concern as by the year 2049 having the same country area 581 persons sharing recourses of one sq. Km. area against China 141 and USA only 49. From the present day crowd, it can be well imagine what will be the crowd condition of India in 2049. A drastic action is needed otherwise it will be too late to cope with this situation. There will be more slumps. By 2011 India will have 9.31 core slump dwellers in which 31.63 lakhs people will be living in slumps in Delhi alone. Some builders have a novel way to attract the client for the apartments they are going to build or already build. They give big advertisement in green colour showing apartment surrounded by tall green trees. When you go to such site you will not found the trees of your dream. The other misleading advertisement is that the apartment has 70% open lush green area. The facts will be known when you calculate the actual open area for one house you will be going to live. See the following table: Table 2: Actual open area shared by number of people: Storey of building 1 5 10 15 Total houses 24 120 240 360 Covered area sq.ft. 36000 180000 360000 540000 Ground open area sq.ft. 25200 25200 25200 25200 Persons living in total apartment 96 480 960 1440

From the above table it can be seen that in a single storey apartment of 24 houses for 96 persons the open area is 25200 sq.ft., whereas for a 15 storey apartment of 360 houses for 1440 persons the open area is again same only 25200 sq.ft. Accordingly if a builder claim that his 15 storey apartment has 70% open area of covered area then the open area should be 378000 sq.ft. and not 25200 sq.ft. Suppose per house there is one car, then a single storey apartment will have 24 cars and a 15 storey apartment will have 360 cars. In a 15 storey apartment where is the open space will be left for trees? To maintain our natural environment there must be one tree for each house. Accordingly in a 15 storey apartment having 360 houses there should be 360 tall trees. Have we such greenery in any of the apartment in our cities. How then they may be called

green houses and claiming 70% lush green open area. The fact is we are living in congested places where we can never feel comfortable and enjoy the life of natural environment. URBAN HEAT ISLAND MITIGATION Urban areas have been found to have air temperature 20C to 50C warmer than the surrounding country side. This phenomenon known as the URBAN HEAT ISLAND EFFECT. There are number of ways one can fight the urban heat island at home and around the city. 1. Planting Trees: Trees are one of our most important allies in the fight against the urban heat island effect. Air temperatures directly under trees can be as much as 100C cooler than temperature over unshaded blacktop. Trees can be sited stragically to shade roofs, pavement, walls, and other surfaces, keeping them cooler and reducing energy bills. Trees also provided a cooling effect through evapotranspiration. Other vegetation, including grass etc. also provides cooling effects, though not usually as significant as trees. 2. Green Roofs: Green roofs are roofs planted with grasses, flowers, or other vegetation. Like trees planted at ground level, the vegetation shades the surface, keeping it cooler. Reducing the urban heat island effect isnt the only benefit of green roofs- they can also be used to grow fresh local products in the city, and they significantly reduce storm water run off as well. Local birds will be attracted on the roof greenery and make their nest upon it. 3. Permeable Pavement: Many types of permeable pavement reduce the urban heat island effect in one or more ways. For example, many grid or block pavers incorporate grass or other ground covers, which help shade the surface of the pavement and increase local evapotranspiration. Porous pavements often have much lower total mass than asphalt or concrete, reducing the amount of heat they absorb and many permeable pavements are lighter colored than traditional pavement as well. 4. Building Walls: The walls of building should be painted with solar reflective paints. 5. Roofs: The roof of house remains exposing to direct sun rays most of the day time. The traditional methods of keeping roof surface cool are lime terracing, mud phuska and brick bat coba treatment. These methods are not only time consuming, costly but also increases the dead load on roof. The new and very convenient method is to paint the roof surface white with solar reflective paint/coating. Solar reflective coating is an acrylic based coating which provides weather proofing and heat insulation to the exposed roof. This can be used for coating RB, RCC roof top surface, asbestos cement roofing sheets, galvanized zinc sheets as well as aluminium sheets. With such coating temperature may be lower upto 100C thus giving cooling comfort to the occupants of house and also reduces the load on Air Conditioner Low Cost Housing Low Cost Housing is a new concept which deals with effective budgeting and following of techniques which help in reducing the cost construction through the use of locally available materials along with improved skills and technology without sacrificing the strength, performance and life of the structure.There is huge misconception that low cost housing is suitable for only sub standard works and they are constructed by utilizing cheap building materials of low quality.The fact is that Low cost housing is done by proper management of resources. Economy is also achieved by postponing finishing works or implementing them in phases. Building Cost The building construction cost can be divided into two parts namely: Building material cost : 65 to 70 % Labour cost : 65 to 70 % Now in low cost housing, building material cost is less because we make use of the locally available materials and also the labour cost can be reduced by properly making the time schedule of our work. Cost of reduction is achieved by selection of more efficient material or by an improved design.