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OF
SEA POWER
ON THE
This is primarily due to two series of events. Greco-Persian War, appropriately titled "The
Battle
West" by historian Ernle Bradford, in which the Greek victory over King Xerxes of the Persians firmly established the place of Greece in the history of the Occident.1 The second was the Punic
Wars, a series of three wars fought between Rome and Carthage which saw the emergence and permanence of Roman tradition in Western Civilization. This discussion will focus on the least-appreciated aspect of the conflict between Rome and Carthage, the influence of sea power on an essentially land-based war, the Second Punic War. Despite this, we will discuss the First Punic War, as its result is a key factor in influencing the outcome of the Second Punic War. To briefly introduce the historical context, the First
Punic War was a series of naval battles fought for the control of Sicily from 264-241 B.C. The Second Punic War, on the other
hand, was essentially a series of campaigns on land, from 218201 B.C., with little overt significance of naval matters.
Ernle Bradford, Thermopylae: The Battle for the West (NY: Da Capo Press, 1993).
1
The
THE INFLUENCE
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SEA POWER
ON THE
Third Punic War was a uneven match fought between 149-146 B.C. that saw the ultimate destruction of Carthage. Scholarly debate about the influence of sea power on the Second Punic War is hardly an issue that has been seriously academically attempted. Likewise, it seems particularly ripe as Dutch
historian J.H. Thiel provides the most succinct understanding of the reason the influence of sea power provokes an intellectual call-to-arms:
The problem, what was the function and importance of sea-power in the second Punic war, how far the Romans during this war really ruled the waves, and if, so, whether or not this fact decisively influenced the course and result of the war as a whole, remains as yet a question brlante, which is judged in the most diverging ways and consequently cries for a thorough discussion.2
Thiel briefly discusses these diverging views not only as an introduction to his own work, but as a means of suggesting
further scholarly work on an issue that suffers from remarkable neglect.3 Given the fact that the Second Punic War was a land-based war fought
2
primarily
it
J.H. Thiel, Studies on the History of Roman Sea Power in Republican Times (Amsterdam: North-Holland Publishing Co., 1946), p. 32. 3 Ibid., p. 33.
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might seem peculiar to suggest that sea power was a primary, if not the decisive factor in determining the outcome of the war. As Boris Rankov notes,"[t]he war at sea has to a certain extent been seen as a sideshow," and thus it is not surprising to see little historical attention paid to the influence of sea power in this second engagement between Rome and Carthage from 218-201 B.C.4 Likewise, the military geniuses Hannibal and Scipio
Africanus and the historic land battles in which their armies fought overshadow the significance of the decisive role of sea power. This paper will seek to explain how the outcome of the
First Punic War, which resulted in decisive Roman sea power, played an important role in the Second Punic War. of the seas thus gave it an important tool in The Roman command terms of a of
"competitive
advantage"
against
Carthage.
concept
competitive advantage, as an analytic tool used as a means of understanding Furthermore, the this war's paper outcome, will will be briefly discussed. that
then
seek
to
demonstrate
Rome's survival was due to the exploitation of this competitive advantage. Finally, it will conclude that Roman sea power was
in fact the decisive factor in rendering the outcome of the Second Punic War.
Boris Rankov, "The Second Punic War at Sea," in The Second Punic War: A Reappraisal. eds. Tim Cornell, Boris Rankov, and Philip Sabin (London: Institute of Classical Studies, 1996), pp. 49-57.
THE INFLUENCE
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ON THE
CARTHAGE At the dawn of the third century B.C., Carthage possessed "undisputed command at sea" in the western Mediterranean Sea.5 It should be little surprise that Carthage, as a colony of the sea-faring Phoenicians, should take to the sea in the western Mediterranean. inherited and As Arthur Shepard in writes, "the Carthaginians Phoenician
transmitted
full
measure
the
propensity for a seafaring life and commercial adventure..."6 This seafaring life, combined with threats on all sides ("by the hostile native tribes of Africa, by the Etruscans to the north, and by the everpressing westward tide of Greek migration...") forced Carthage "by sheer self-preservation to adopt a strong military policy."7 The consolidation of Carthaginian naval
power took place between 550 B.C., when the Carthaginian king Malchus invaded Sicily, and 500 B.C.8,9 Despite occasional
battles with the Greeks, Carthaginian command of the sea was not seriously challenged for nearly two centuries.10 In 264 B.C.,
the inevitable clash between two growing empires, Carthage and Rome, flared when both islands sought to control the island of
J.F. Lazenby, The First Punic War (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1996), p. 29. 6 Arthur MacCartney Shepard, Sea Power in Ancient History (Boston, MA: Little, Brown. and Co., 1924), 131. 7 Ibid. 8 Ibid., p. 133. 9 Lionel Casson, The Ancient Mariners (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1991), p. 143. 10 Chester G. Starr, The Influence of Sea Power on Ancient History (NY: Oxford University Press, 1989), p. 54.
5
THE INFLUENCE
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ON THE
Sicily.
ROME The Roman civilization is not one that any historian, past, present, or future, will ever likely succeed in suggesting that it was regarded as one of the worlds leading thalossocratic powers. always empire. Despite centuries of Mediterranean dominance, Rome has been regarded, first and foremost, as a land-based
But even a truism may stand in some the rather, taken the because for by most the so
elucidation, is
people
thoughtlessly of
granted: is not
supposed
land-lubberism
Romans
simple a matter as it looks and it fully deserves the interest of the historian.11
What Thiel is suggesting is that, without questioning the truism of Roman and land-lubberism, it is still necessary to
understand nation
appreciate that as a matter of course every borders upon the sea is always of a mixed
which
character: it contains large groups of land-lubbers as well as seafaring and waterside folk.12
11 12
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SEA POWER
ON THE
land-lubberism can be properly appreciated as a true; however, it must be rationalized as a simplistic notion upon which
further understanding can be achieved. Roman sea power as the beginning of the third century B.C. was negligible. maintain a At this period in its history, Rome did not navy, preferring instead ex tempore
standing
had barely reached the southern shores of the Italian peninsula and had not yet crossed over the short stretch of water to the largely Greek and Carthaginian-controlled island of Sicily.
Rome only gained control of Tarentum in 272 B.C. and suppressed the Sallentini and Messapii on Italy's "heel" as recently as 266 B.C.14 Therefore, it is not difficult to understand Romes
reason for such an ex tempore policy: Rome did not yet have any significant overseas territories to defend. The beginning
of Romes entry onto the world stage began in 264 B.C., when the Mamertimes (of Messana) looked to Rome and Carthage after being defeated by Hiero and the Syracusans.15
THE CONCEPT OF COMPETITIVE ADVANTAGE Before we can fully understand the influence of sea power in the conflicts between Rome and Carthage, it is necessary to
Ibid., p. 16. Lazenby, The First Punic War, p. 38. 15 T.A. Dorey and D.R. Dudley, Rome Against Carthage (London: Secker & Warburg, 1971), p. 1.
14 13
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depart
momentarily
from
the
historical
context
and
move
to
establish a firm grounding in a measure of effectiveness which will help us to grasp the importance of sea power. of competitive advantage The concept
applications, yet it does not exclude itself from elucidation as a potential military concept. The most succinct understanding
of competitive advantage is Michael E. Porters The Competitive Advantage geared tool, of Nations.16 explaining net While Porters article as is a largely business embraced military
toward the
competitive assessment as
military
has for
competitive
advantage
potential
demonstrate why some businesses (or nations or militaries) are more prosperous than others. Based on a variety of situations,
environments, and responses, some businesses move forward while others fall back. A competitive advantage is a national or For example,
the Japanese ability to mass produce televisions and VCRs, or the Swedish ability to anticipate concerns for product safety
Michael E. Porter, The Competitive Advantage of Nations, Harvard Business Review, March-April 1990, pp. 73-93.
16
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OF
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ON THE
(i.e.
Volvo),
could
be
considered
competitive
advantages.17
However, understanding this concept is only the first step in taking advantage of its usefulness as a potential measure of effectiveness. The most important questions about competitive advantage How is it sustained? is achieved through innovation. technological
advantage market
opportunities,
embracing
breakthroughs, or just finding new ways of doing old things are good examples of acts of innovation.18 As Porter explains:
The
company that successfully implements a new or better way of competing pursues its approach with dogged
determination, often in the face of harsh criticism and tough obstacles. usually requires the In fact, to succeed, innovation necessity, often and even more
pressure, of
adversity:
fear
loss
proves
As we will see, this adversity is precisely the key to Roman innovation in the First Punic War. How is it sustained? The
only way to sustain a competitive advantage is to upgrade it to move to more sophisticated types.20 In other words,
17 18 19 20
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ON THE
competitive advantage can often be imitated therefore, the competitive advantage of one time period may disappear quickly. Only continuous effort and improvement, and ultimately upgrading is the only way to maintain a competitive advantage.
The Diamond of National Advantage The concept which we will use to understand how competitive advantage Advantage. is achieved is called the Diamond of National
As shown in the diagram, there are four components of the diamond. First, factor conditions, the necessary infrastructure
to compete; demand conditions, demand for the product; related and supporting industries, the presence or absence of related industries; and finally firm strategy, structure, and rivalry. Each point on the diamond - and the diamond as a system affects essential ingredients for achievingcompetitive
THE INFLUENCE
OF
SEA POWER
ON THE
success.21
to describe the situation in which Rome was faced when the First Punic War erupted.
THE FIRST PUNIC WAR A discussion about the influence of sea power on the Second Punic War would be incomplete without a brief understanding of the First Punic War. For, as T.A. Dorey and D.R. Dudley write,
"[t]he seeds of The Second Punic War were sown at the end of the First."22 Furthermore, it is during the First Punic War that we
see Rome faced with adversity, a key ingredient to feed Roman innovation.
Origins Despite the growing power of both Carthage and Rome, J.F. Lazenby notes that "relations between the two powers...seem to have been reasonably cordial...as long as their interests did not seriously clash."23 treaties influence. protecting The two powers maintained a series of others' interests and spheres of
each
southward
and
Carthage
solidified
its
hold
on
its
Ibid., p. 77. Dorey and Dudley, Rome Against Carthage, p. 29. Lazenby, The First Punic War, p. 35.
THE INFLUENCE
OF
SEA POWER
ON THE
Sicilian possessions. These empires collided in the northeast Sicilian town of Messana (Messina), who occupied since the the 280's by Campanian The
tyrant
Messana, and
assistance came
Carthage of the
Rome.25
immediately
the
Mamertines,
However,
Rome responded as well, crossing the strait and expelling the Carthaginians.28 Carthage regarded this as a casus belli for Polybius the
violating a treaty protecting its influence in Sicily. disputes this, yet some modern scholars have
supported
Carthaginian claim.29
Innovation Discovered: The Corvus For the first three years of the First Punic War, Rome had little success against Carthage as a result of Carthaginian
Sicily.
Casson
demonstrates
the
situation
Ibid. Starr, The Influence of Sea Power on Ancient History, pp. 54-55. Ibid., p. 55. Lazenby, The First Punic War, pp. 36-37. Starr, The Influence of Sea Power on Ancient History, p. 55. Dorey and Dudley, Rome Against Carthage, pp. 3-4.
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In 264 B.C. Rome's statesmen and generals faced a dismaying reality: sooner or later they had to take the plunge and create a navy; David had to fight Goliath but not with a slingshot, with the giant's own weapons.30 [Emphasis added]
The
emphasized
sentence
illustrates
the
strategy Rome would have to follow: first, they would have to neutralized Carthaginian control of the sea, which was clearly a
Carthaginian Secondly, to
seize command of the seas and use it as an offensive Carthage.31 The adversity which Rome faced was exactly what it needed to spur an important innovation - the corvus. The corvus was a competitive advantage against
boarding ramp which allowed Roman legionnaires to cross over to an enemy ship and "turn a sea fight into a land fight..."32 In
260 B.C. off the north shore of Sicily, the Roman commander Caius Duilius routed the Carthaginians. In the next eight
years, a number of small engagements took place. faced with adversity, achieved an important
innovation
30 31 32
Casson, The Ancient Mariners, p. 144. Dorey and Dudley, Rome Against Carthage, p. 8. Casson, The Ancient Mariners, p. 146.
THE INFLUENCE
OF
SEA POWER
ON THE
neutralized
Carthaginian
competitive
advantage
in
Seizing the Competitive Advantage We return again to the Diamond of National Advantage to understand Carthage. necessary mastery. how The Rome first captured the competitive advantage from the
attribute is to
compete Roman
naval the
the
With Greek and Syracusan allies, to compete. David The second the for
resources the
attribute
demand naval
conditions; giant
Roman
facing demand
Carthaginian
provided
the
necessary
The third attribute is related and which and Rome's naval allies are Syracuse roughly
Greek
shipbuilders
comparable.
Rome relied heavily on the loyalty of these allies The fourth attribute is firm strategy, Given Rome's dedicated shipbuilding
rivalry.
program and the military rivalry they faced against Carthage, it is not difficult to see how this attribute is easily met. Rome's innovation in the corvus neutralized Carthaginian
THE INFLUENCE
OF
SEA POWER
ON THE
program
supported
by
the for
necessary themselves. as a
conditions "Each -
seized on
the the
competitive diamond -
point
diamond
system
affects
essential of
ingredients
achieving...success."35
Thus, the
Diamond
National Advantage provides an excellent tool to analyze how Rome was able to effectively respond to Carthaginian command of the seas. By 241 B.C. near the Aegates Islands:
the tables were now turned: the Romans had the better ships and crews and, as usual, superior numbers (200 to 170)...Carthage, the ertswhile naval power, went into the last round with old vessels and raw crews; Rome, the nation of lubbers, ended with a navy of two hundred of the finest war galleys afloat, manned by veterans.36
Rome
had
seized Yet it
command
of
the until
seas the
for next
itself.37
remained
conflict between Rome and Carthage for the Romans to employ their newly-gained command of the seas as an offensive competitive
advantage.
Porter, The Competitive Advantage of Nations, p. 77. Casson, The Ancient Mariners, p. 151. Lazenby, The First Punic War, p. 29.
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ON THE
The end of the First Punic War was not so much a permanent piece as is was an armistice agreed to when Hamilcar asked the Roman consul Catulus for terms of peace. number fight of then "obnoxious accept Hamilcar resisted a
[them]."38
withdrew, having never been defeated. Polybius identifies three main causes of the Second Punic War. The first, as Dorey and Dudley explain, was "the attitude
of Hamilcar himself...he felt that if he could face the Romans again on equal terms he would have little difficulty in
reversing the decision, and he was eager for an opportunity to renew the struggle."39 The second cause was Rome's seizure in
238 B.C. of the island of Sardinia and the unjust demand of a twelve hundred talent indemnity.40,41 The third was Carthaginian
conquests in Spain, which culminated in Hannibal's attack on the Spanish town of Saguntum. Rome claimed Saguntum was under its
protection and later called Hannibal's siege a casus belli for violating the peace treaty between Rome and Carthage, despite the fact that the treaty contained no such clause and was not even ratified by the Roman Senate or approved by the Roman
people.42
38 39
Dorey and Dudley, Rome Against Carthage, p. 26. Ibid., p. 29. 40 Ibid., p. 30. 41 Lazenby, The First Punic War, p. 174. 42 Sir Gavin de Beer, Hannibal: Challenging Rome's Supremacy (NY: The Viking Press, 1969), p. 113.
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Hannibals Route Most written material about the Second Punic War focuses primarily on the remarkable Alpine journey undertaken by
Hannibal and the subsequent land battles fought against Rome on the Italian peninsula. Hannibal's routing of the Romans during
the battles at Lake Trasimene and Cannae, in particular, are often the center of attention for most scholars. However,
little mention is made of the circumstances that precipitated Hannibal's treacherous journey and the reasons why he chose this route. As we have seen, by the end of the First Punic War, Rome had seized command of the sea away from the Carthaginians first through tactics the (by neutralization means of the of superior Carthaginian naval
peace at the end of the First Punic War, its naval advantage was gone: severe restrictions were put on future naval activity, and they now had only about 50 ships as compared to Rome's 220
43
Ibid.
THE INFLUENCE
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ON THE
quinqueremes.
44,45
considerable naval disadvantage. When attention has been paid to Hannibal's choice of a
treacherous overland route as compared to a amphibious invasion, scholars have divided themselves about the reasons why. Thiel
and Mayan both place a great deal of emphasis on the importance of naval superiority not only in Hannibal's choice of the
overland route but also in the war's outcome.46,47 the same conclusion, although less
convincingly.48
contends that "the real explanation was of a different order, not directly connected to sea power," and suggests along with de Sanctis that it was due to the difficulty in transporting large numbers of cavalry and elephants.49,50 Finally, Mommsen's History
of Rome proffers the dull explanation that Hannibal's reasons were "not entirely obvious."51 The most plausible explanation, however, given the
Ibid., p. 88. Starr, The Influence of Sea Power on Ancient History, p. 46 Thiel, Studies, p. 186. 47 Starr, The Influence of Sea Power on Ancient History, p. 48 Casson, The Ancient Mariners, p. 151. 49 Starr, The Influence of Sea Power on Ancient History, p. 50 G. de Sanctis, Storia dei Romani (Turin: Fratelli Bocca, 12, in Rankov, "The Second Punic War at Sea," p. 52. 51 Starr, The Influence of Sea Power on Ancient History, p.
OF
SEA POWER
ON THE
Hannibal
chose
to...invade Italy through the Alps, rather than...a passage by sea. this choice to was De Sanctis [and Starr] argued that dictated by horses the Carthaginians' presumably
inability
transport
(and
elephants) by sea, but this was rightly rejected by Thiel on the grounds that they were able to do
The
logical
conclusion
to
Rankov's
only did sea power play an important role in the choice of routes, but the lack of
control of key bases in Sicily and Sardinia (which, of course, were lost in the naval battles of the choice First a Punic War) made The
Hannibal's
fait
accompli.
results of successful naval warfare during the First Punic War and the command of the sea possessed by the Romans at the beginning of the Second Punic War were the decisive factors land. in forcing Hannibal to march by
52
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The Roman Invasion "In the spring of 204 B.C., Scipio [Africanus] set sail from Lilybaeum with thirty thousand men and landed near Utica at Promontorium Pulchrum west of Cap Bon."53
In 204 B.C., Rome did to Carthage exactly what Carthage wanted to do to Rome all along. Little doubt remains that,
would Carthage have been able to invade Rome from the sea and provide Hannibal with a constant flow of reinforcements and
supplies, Rome would have fallen. and the seizure to use of important
Yet Roman command of the seas Sicilian ports allowed in sea Scipio power,
Africanus
Rome's
competitive
advantage
Despite Rome's
command of the seas, this marked the first time that sea power as a competitive manner. advantage Against was effectively applied in an and
offensive
Carthage's
now-inferior
fleet
battle-weary troops, with supply lines from Sicily and recently conquered Spain, Roman sea power as a competitive advantage
spelled impending doom for the Carthaginians. The battle at Zama marked the first and only time Scipio and Hannibal faced each other. For the first time, Hannibal was After Hannibal's
THE INFLUENCE
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ON THE
cavalry was driven off by Masinissa's Numidian cavalry, Scipio closed the gaps in his line. fighting became desperate, and According to de Beer, "[t]he Laelius and Masinissa, having
driven the Carthaginian cavalry from the field, now came back and charged into the flanks and read of the wreck of Hannibal's army. The battle was irretrievably lost."54 Dorey and D.R. Dudley, in Rome Against Carthage,
T.A.
provide a succinct explanation of how, despite the Carthaginian defeat on land at Zama, other factors prevailed:
It may seem a paradox to assert that it was Roman sea-power that defeated Hannibal. at Zama would scarcely agree. Roman sea-power Italy that from Those who fought
invading
Roman
sea-power
that prevented adequate reinforcements from reaching him in southern Italy; it was that same sea-power that made it impossible for him to concert and
Finally, it was that same Roman sea power which allowed Rome to invade northern Africa and defeat Carthage.
54 55
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ON THE
Fifty-two years after the peace treaty of 201 B.C., the third This war time broke the out between were Rome and
Carthage. matched.
contestants
unevenly
Rome was by now the dominant power in the Carthage commanded no more than Once war had
Mediterranean world.
begun, a Roman victory was inevitable, and in the end Carthage was totally destroyed.56
In
149
B.C.,
Carthaginian
army
under
the
command
of
Carthalo and Hasdrubal invaded Numidia, which violated the peace treaty of 201 B.C. and gave the opportunity for Rome to
intervene militarily against Carthage and gain decisive control of northern Africa. Rome took an army of 80,000 infantry and
4,000 cavalry, larger than any previous Roman invasion force.57 The result, of course, was a foregone conclusion. By 146 B.C.,
Rome had besieged Carthage and physically destroyed the city. The result that is most important to us, of course, is the sustained ability of Rome to use its dominant sea power across the Mediterranean for invasion forces and resupply missions. It
would be stretching to conclude that sea power was the decisive factor in this third and final conflict. already assured before the war even began.
56 57
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point is that certainly the influence of sea power was important and hastened the ultimate collapse of Carthage.
CONCLUSION The goal of this paper has been to explain, first of all, how the outcome of the First Punic War, which resulted in
decisive Roman sea power, played an important role in the Second Punic War. Command of the seas thus gave Rome an important tool The
concept of competitive advantage, as a means of understanding the war's outcome, was explained and applied as tool of
survival
exploitation of this competitive advantage. The final conclusion of this paper is to resolve that Roman sea power was in fact the decisive factor in rendering the war's outcome. Based on Roman innovation in a time of crisis,
Rome gained an important tool (the corvus) which effectively neutralized Carthaginian command of the sea for a time
The result of
The First Punic War saw Rome seize command of the seas from Carthage through the achievement of competitive advantage. The power by Second Punic War demonstrated Romes the influence of sea
understanding
how
newly-gained
competitive
THE INFLUENCE
OF
SEA POWER
ON THE
As it has
been shown, the choice of Hannibals route (and its subsequent resupply missions) and Roman invasion of northern Africa were directly suggests linked what to the this competitive outcome advantage. would have J.H. been Thiel given
likely
Carthaginian, rather than Roman, command of the seas. liberally (given the circumstances) seems appropriate:
For what would have been the end, if Carthage instead of Rome had commanded the sea? Rome Spain had not been able to In other words, if an offensive made battle in his of
To quote
launch
and
consequently in Italy at
had the
appearance
Cannae instead of in 207, when it was too late, if at the same time Philip had landed considerable forces in Italy and Carthage had found ample opportunity of providing Hannibal directly by sea with all he
wanted, and if - again last, but not least - she had profited by her naval supremacy to wrest Sicily and Sardinia from the Romans and starve Italy by doing so? the There is but one answer: Rome wouldnt have had slightest chance of winning the war, on the
contrary she would have lost it within half the time. This means that in reality naval supremacy decisively contributed to the Roman victory, though in a
somewhat latent way; the maxim that he wins who has the
58
sea
is
certainly
applicable
to
this
war.58
OF
SEA POWER
ON THE
The
Third
Punic
War,
as
we
have
seen,
was
of
little
military and/or naval importance given the lopsided nature of the conflict. The result was the ultimate destruction of
Carthage. Thiel was speaking directly about The Second Punic War. But it is appropriate to extend his analysis to the Punic Wars in general. Given the evidence, it can be reasonably concluded
that the influence of sea power as a competitive advantage was the decisive factor in the struggle between Rome and Carthage. The Greek victory over the Persians firmly established the place of Greece in the history of Western civilization. defense at Thermopylae, Bradfords Battle for The gallant the West,
Carthaginians did the same for Romes influence. by influence of sea power as a
competitive
particularly in The Second Punic War, which ultimately made this possible.
BIBLIOGRAPHY Bradford, Ernle. Thermopylae: The Battle for the West. NY: Da Capo Press, 1993. Casson, Lionel. The Ancient Mariners. Princeton, NJ: Princeton
THE INFLUENCE
OF
SEA POWER
ON THE
University Press, 1991. de Beer, Sir Gavin. Hannibal: Challenging Rome's Supremacy. NY: The Viking Press, 1969. Dodge, Theodore A. Hannibal: A History of the Art of the Carthaginians and Romans Down to the Battle 168 B.C., With a Detailed Account of The Second NY: Houghton, Mifflin, and Co., 1891, Vols. 1 & War Among of Pydna, Punic War. 2.
Dorey, T.A., and D.R. Dudley. Rome Against Carthage. London: Secker & Warburg, 1971. Lazenby, J.F. The First Punic War. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1996. Porter, Michael E. The Competitive Advantage of Nations. Harvard Business Review, March-April 1990. Rankov, Boris. "The Second Punic War at Sea." in The Second Punic War: A Reappraisal. eds. Tim Cornell, Boris Rankov, and Philip Sabin. London: Institute of Classical Studies, 1996. Starr, Chester G. The Influence of Sea Power on Ancient History. NY: Oxford University Press, 1989. Thiel, J.H. Studies on the History of Roman Sea Power in Republican Times. Amsterdam: North-Holland Publishing Co., 1946.