PARAGRAPHS The major building block for essays and papers is the paragraph.

However, just as there are various types of materials used in constructing a house, there are different types of paragraphs used in constructing a paper. Paragraphs are most often used to mark the introduction of a new idea or a new section in a piece of writing. However, they are sometimes used to break up long sections of writing into shorter, easier to read pieces. How to break up an essay into paragraphs depends upon the organization and relationship of ideas or information in that piece of writing. Indeed, most writing can be divided into paragraphs in several different ways. Topic Sentences - A topic sentence is a sentence that expresses the main idea of a paragraph. It tells the reader what to expect about the information that will follow. It also summarizes the central idea of a paragraph. Topic sentences are usually found at or near the beginning of a paragraph. Without the use of a topic sentence, developing a paragraph can be extremely difficult. Topic sentences can appear at several points in a paragraph: A. the beginning of the paragraph B. the middle of the paragraph C. the end of the paragraph D. the beginning and the end of the paragraph Three essential qualities of a good paragraph are unity, development, and coherence. A unified paragraph develops one main point, with all the sentences relating to that point or possesses oneness-because it develops one central idea. The unity of a paragraph may be violated in two ways: Through the inclusion of a second central idea; or Through the inclusion of one or more sentences of detail that are not related, or are only vaguely related, to the paragraphs central idea. A paragraph may also seem to lack unity when no central idea is apparent in it. A developed paragraph (emphasis) includes sufficient explanation and support of its point for the reader to understand it fully. There are several devices, which help a writer achieve emphasis in writing his paragraph. These devices are:

Emphasis by proportion a writer can indicate to their reader the relative value of the ideas he wants to stand out in the paragraph by the respective amount of space he devotes to them. Subordinate ideas should be given fewer sentences and those of greater importance should have more. Subordinate ideas should not be overdeveloped, neither should have more important ideas be underdeveloped.

Less Emphatic: to very months before. More Emphatic:

He was tired; he had worked all day, trying to finish a briefing on the man who came home one night find a suitcase of stolen bills in his room, the bills robbed from the bank several He was tired; he had worked hard all day trying to finish a briefing.

Emphasis by Pause pauses created by chapter divisions, paragraph breaks, and marks of punctuation throw emphasis on the material immediately preceding and following the pause. Less Emphatic: More Emphatic: At first did not know what was required of me, I know now. At first I did not know what was required of me, I know now.

Emphasis by Position the beginning and end of a composition, a paragraph and a sentence are the position of greatest emphasis. They should be used to stress the important ideas. Unemphatic Sentence Beginning: There was a writer named Matthew Arnold, who influenced my

thinking. More Emphatic: Matthew Arnold was a writer who influenced my thinking. Unemphatic Sentence Ending:The situation is critical, I believe. More Emphatic: The situation is, I believe, critical.

Emphasis by Skillful Repetition if necessary repeat the idea in different words, or repeat the structure of sentences in the paragraph. Avoid unnecessary repetition because it will make the composition dull and wordy.

A coherent paragraph develops its point in an organized, logical way, showing the sequence of ideas and the connections among them. Within every paragraph, the sentences should be arranged and linked in such a manner that the readers can easily follow the thought. It is not enough the reader to know what each sentence means; readers must also see how it leads into the one that follows it. The connection maybe clear enough to the writer but not at all clear to the readers; incoherence means that the relationships have not been shown, not that they do not exist. Coherence according to Elsbree et. al; (1981), is a continuity within and between paragraphs. These are the special devices needed to maintain coherence: 1. Logical Order of Ideas

Chronological Order often used for narrating personal experiences, summarizing steps in a process, and explaining historical events and movement. A B C D, not C A D B

Spatial Order helps provide coherence by arranging visual details in some consistent sequence-from left to right, right to left, east to west, west to east, from the distant to the near, from the near to the distant.

Deductive Order this pattern of organization is one that moves from a general statement to the particular details that support or explain it. Diagrammed, deductive order can mean the following: General Statement

Specific Details 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Inductive Order is organized with the details at the beginning and in the

middle, and with an ending that is a summary or generalization, usually the topic sentence. Details Summary or Generalization

2. Special Devices use of transitional words and phrases, use of pronouns, the repetition
of key words, and the use of parallel structure. A. Below is a list of relationships and appropriate transitional words: Result or Sequence: Comparison or contrast: Example or Illustration: hence, consequently, as a result, therefore similarly, likewise, however, on the other hand, yet, still, nevertheless as an illustration, for example, especially, for instance Additional Aspect or Evidence: Conclusion: moreover, furthermore, also, too, next, besides, in the first place, first in conclusion, to sum up, to include, in short B. Reference of pronoun He was a monster of conceit. Never for one moment did he look at the world or at people, except in relation to himself. He was not only the most important person in the world, to himself, in his own eyes he was the only person who existed.

He believed himself to be one of the greatest composers. To hear him talk, he was Shakespeare, and Beethoven and Plato in one. -Deem Taylor, The Monster. C. Repetition coherence is also maintained by the repetition of key words that are related to the central idea. D. Parallel Structure continuity can also be sustained by parallel structure, which calls attention to similar ideas. This coordination of equally important ideas is often useful with introductory or summary paragraph although its use is by no means confined to such paragraphs. PATTERNS OF PARAGRAPH DEVELOPMENT

By definition the meaning of a term is discussed By Details the specific ideas are discussed to understand the whole By Examples and Illustrations specific incidents, conditions or facts are given to support a point By Contrast and Comparison similar and different features of things and ideas belonging to the same class or category are pointed out. By Analogy two unlike things with similar features are compared By Cause and Effect a situation is described and its cause is given By Analysis the subject matter is divided into parts and then each part is developed in turn By Process it tells how something is done or how to do something by giving the step-by-step procedure By Narrating - develops the topic as a story. Most events are arranged in chronological order (as they occurred). Narration is based on facts and true experiences. Good for audiences who read for more than just information.

By Describing - uses sight, sounds, odors and whatever other sensory detail to let the reader experience the situation under discussion. The audience here is more visual in nature; also this method is good for the audience who needs to see the runaway, the results of a failed experiment, or the nature of your alarm about a particular topic SPECIAL PURPOSE PARAGRAPHS

Introductory paragraphs

The chief function of an introductory paragraph is to introduce the topic and present the main point or the thesis of an essay. This point or thesis may be a single sentence which states the main idea the essay will develop or it may be several sentences long, not only stating a main idea, but also indicating the main divisions of an essay and/or outlining the proposed methods of development. An effective introduction must interest the reader, introducing the subject under discussion in a way that will convince the reader that the essay will be worth reading. There are several ways of introducing your topic. They are: 1. an incident or an anecdote 2. an example 3. an analogy 4. a quotation 5. a question 6. a striking statement 7. a definition 8. a description 9. a statement of purpose, theme or problem 10. a historical background 11. a conversation

Transitional Paragraphs Transitional paragraphs connect sections of an essay. They may summarize a preceding

section briefly and introduce a new section, or they may show some logical connection between sections, bridge the gap between a major division of the topic and the succeeding one, or make the shift from one part of the subject to another part smoothly, much as transitional words do between sentences. Transitional paragraphs are usually quite short, sometimes only a sentence in length. They are most often used in longer essays that develop several complex issues. A transition paragraph may do the following: 1. sum up the significance of what was said in the preceding paragraphs; 2. Introduce a series of results; or 3. State what the writer intends to do next In shorter essays, the transitional function is usually served by a transitional word, phrase or sentence at the end of one paragraph or the beginning of the next paragraph.

Concluding Paragraphs A concluding paragraph brings an essay to a close, leaving the reader with a sense of

completion. Often, the conclusion will restate the thesis of an essay, sometimes reformulating the thesis in light of the evidence presented in the essay. But concluding paragraphs may work in other ways. If the essay deals with a subject which can be approached in several ways and the

essay have chosen one approach over others, the concluding paragraph may defend that approach. A particularly effective kind of concluding paragraph demonstrates the larger implications of a thesis by placing it in the context of some larger issue. Finally, a concluding paragraph may speculate about future developments. The following are ways of concluding an academic piece of writing: 1. making a prediction 2. presenting a summary 3. using a suggestion to action 4. giving the significance of the topic 5. making an emotional statement 6. announcing important points 7. asking rhetorical question/s 8. stating a conclusion 9. citing 10. a 11. quotation 12. retelling 13. an incident or an anecdote FORMS OF DISCOURSE There are various ways to categorize various types of essays. In this course, the following four categories are used: Description, Narration, Exposition, Persuasion. Each of these types of essays has its distinctive characteristics, although you will find that essays are often a combination of the various forms.

1. DESCRIPTION
This type of essay is just what it says a description of something or someone, a situation or a location. A description is a type of writing that demands that you use your senses. You want your reader to feel, smell, taste, hear and see what you are writing about. If you write a descriptive essay about your dog, you will write about what it looks like its color and size and shape and perhaps the sounds it makes when it is contented, is aroused by a stranger or a cat, or when it hears music. What does it smell like when it comes in from the rain? Or when it burps after its had its dinner? WRITING A DESCRIPTION ESSAY

Appeal to the senses

One of the most typical techniques for description is providing stimulus to the readers senses. When writing description, keep your five senses in mind. If you can describe how something tastes, your reader will be able to taste what you are describing. Or if the color of an object is significant, let your reader know exactly what color it is. Give examples When you write about a person or a literary character, you may want to include characteristics that are not so easy to discern with your five senses. To get below the surface of the person you want to describe, you must find a way to tell about more than the appearance of that person. For example, you might want to make your reader understand that Heathcliff, in Wuthering Heights, is evil. Although some description of his eyes may lead us to think that he is not a pleasant man, relating the scene where he strikes young Catherine would be more convincing in your presentation of Heathcliffs diabolical manner. In other words, use specific examples to give a description of a persons inner characteristics. Use literary devices There are some other common techniques that you can use to describe something in a way that your reader will understand. These techniques are the same ones you learned about in your study of literature, for example simile, metaphor, personification and hyperbole. EXAMPLE (Descriptive Essay) The thick, burnt scent of roasted coffee tickled the tip of my nose just seconds before the old, faithful alarm blared a distorted top-forty through its tiny top speaker. Wiping away the grit of last night's sleep, the starch white sunlight blinded me momentarily as I slung my arm like an elephant trunk along the top of the alarm, searching for the snooze button. While stretching hands and feet to the four posts of my bed, my eyes opened after several watery blinks. I crawled out of the comforter, edging awkwardly like a butterfly from a cocoon, swinging my legs over the side of the bed. The dusty pebbles on the chilled, wood floor sent ripples spiraling from my ankles to the nape of my neck when my feet hit the floor. Grabbing the apricot, terri-cloth robe, recently bathed in fabric softener and October wind, I knotted it tightly at my waist like a prestigious coat of armor and headed downstairs to battle the morning. 2. NARRATION A narrative essay tells a story. You find narration in newspaper reports, travelogues, and other renderings of experiences that are either personal or observed. If you write a narrative essay about your dog, you might tell about the time you got your dog, about the time it saved a little boys life, or about the time it helped itself to the pork

chops on the barbecue.

3. EXPOSITION Expository writing is usually an objective text. It presents information in some ordered fashion so that the audience can learn something about the subject of the essay. It is common to include both description and narration (anecdotal examples) in an expository essay. If you write an expository essay about your dog, you might write about your dogs particular breed. You could include the history of the breed of dog, a description of a typical dog of that breed, and the special uses of that particular breed. TYPES OF EXPOSITION The Process Analysis 1. Analysis by Partition 2. Analysis by Classification Definition A common type of exposition is the definition. Some definitions are very short, like the following definitions of some non-existent words: Aeroma - The odor emanating from an exercise room after an aerobics workout. Bathquake - The violent quake that rattles the entire house when the water faucet is turned to a certain point. Carperpetuation - The act, when vacuuming, of running over a string or a piece of lint at least a dozen times, reaching over and picking it up, examining it, then putting it back down to give the vacuum one more chance. Hozone - The place where one sock in every laundry load disappears to.5 When you write a definition, you: - Put the word or concept into a general category (quake). - Tell what is special about this particular item. Explain how it differs from other items in the same general category (violent, rattles house, water faucet turned on). - Put the word into context. - Give an example.

4. PERSUASION/ARGUMENTATION

Persuasion, otherwise known as argumentation, is the type of essay you use when you want to convince your reader that something is important or should be done. In order to persuade someone to change his opinion or mode of action, you must have plausible and convincing arguments. A persuasive essay may include expository writing as well as description and narration. An argument is composed of three (3) parts: the claim or proposition, the support, and the warrant. THE CLAIM It answers the question What are you trying to prove? It may appear as the thesis statement of the essay. There are 3 principal kinds of claim: claims of fact, of value and of policy. THE SUPPORT It consists of materials used by the arguer to convince an audience or reader that the claim is sound. THE WARRANT It is an inference or an assumption, a belief of principle that is taken for granted. A warrant is a guarantee or reliability; in argument it guarantees the soundness of the relationship between the support and the claim. It allows the readers to make the connection between the support and the claim.