Department of Chemical Engineering Strength of Materials for Chemical Engineers (0935381)

Chapter 1 Simple Stress and Strain

The main objective of the study of the mechanics of materials is to provide the engineer with the means of analyzing and designing various machines and load bearing structures.

Stress
Stress is the internal resistance offered by a unit area of the material from which a member is made to an externally applied load. Direct or normal stress is calculated using the following equation:

Applied Load P = Original Cross sectional Area resisting the Force A

And has a unit of Pa or N/m2.

Strain
Strain is the total deformation divided by the original length of the bar. Normal or longitudinal strain is calculated using the following equation:

Change in Length L = L Original Length L Percentage Strain = 100% L

Tensile stresses and strain are considered positive increase in length. Compressive stresses and strain are considered negative producing a decrease in length.

Materials may be classified into

(1) Elastic material which undergoes a deformation when subjected to an external loading such that, the deformation disappears on the removed of the loading, (Rubber). (2) A plastic material undergoes a continuous deformation during the period of loading and the deformation is permanent and the material does not regain its original dimensions on the removal of the loading, (Aluminum). (3) A rigid material does not undergo any deformation when subjected to an external loading, (Glass and Cast iron).

Loads
1- Dead loads: static in nature such as the self weight of the roof. 2- Live loads: fluctuating in nature, does not remain constant such as a weight of a vehicle moving on a bridge. 3- Tensile loads. 4- Compressive loads. 5- Shearing loads.

Load
Tensile Compressive Shearing

Stress
Tensile

Strain
Tensile

Compressive Compressive Shear Shear

The actual values of modulus of elasticity E and maximum stress ultimate are determined by carrying out a standard tensile best on a specimen of the material. The bar is subjected to a gradually increasing tensile load until failure occurs. Measurements of the change in length of a selected gauge length of the bar are recorded throughout the loading operation by means of extensometers. And a graph of load against extension or stress against strain is produced as shown. 1. Form OA Hookes low is obeyed, i.e. the material behaves elastically and stress is proportional to strain, giving the straight line graph indicated. For elastic materials, stress is proportional to strain:

E=

F Stress FL = = A = L Strain AL L

The unit of E is N/m2 (GN/m2). 2. After A the linear nature of the graph disappears and this point is termed the limit of proportionality. 3. B elastic limit, i.e. the deformation are completely recovered when the load is removed (i.e. strain returns to zero), but Hooks law does not apply.

4. Yield point is the stress at which a noticeable elongation of the sample occurs with no apparent increase in lead. 5. After B plastic deformation occurs and strains are not totally recoverable, and relatively rapid increases in stain occur without correspondingly high increases in load or stress. 6. C is termed the upper yield point and D is the lower yield point. The deformation at the yield point is only local in nature. It starts at one point and that region gets work-hardened, so the flow starts again at a region adjacent to the former region. Hardening occurs here too, and the process continues. Thus, the flow is spread throughout the specimen. Each successive work hardening tends to increase the stress. But the effect is only momentary, and again the stress value falls, due to the flow in the neighboring region. As a result, the entire specimen gets work- hardened and the stress begins to rise, deformation becomes uniform. 7. Beyond the yield point some increase in load is required to take the strain to point E, between D and E the material is said to be in the elastic-plastic state. 8. Beyond E the cross-sectional area of the bar begins to reduce rapidly over a relatively small length of the bar and the bar is said to neck. This necking takes place whilst the load reduces, and fracture of the bar finally occurs at point F. 9. Stress at failure, termed the maximum or ultimate tensile stress is given by the load at E divided by the original cross-sectional area of the bar. ( Tensile Strength)

Toughness

The area under the entire stress-strain curve from zero to rupture gives the property known as the modulus of toughness [The energy per unit volume necessary to rupture the material].

Modulus of Resilience
The area the stress-strain curve and if evaluated from zero to the elastic limit it is defined as the maximum strain energy per unit volume that a material will absorb without permanent deformation.

Proof Stress
For certain materials, for example, high carbon steel it is not possible to detect any difference between the upper and lower yield point and in some case no yield point exist at all. In such cases a proof stress is used to indicate the onset of plastic strain. The 0.1% proof stress for example is that stress which when remove produce a permanent strain of 0.1% of the original gauge length. 1. 2. 3. Mark the point P on the strain axis which is equivalent to 0.1% strain. From P draw a line parallel with the initial straight line portion of the tensile test curve to cut the curve in N. The stress corresponding to N is then the 0.1% proof stress. A material is considered to satisfy its specification if the permanent set is no more than 0.1% after the proof stress has been applied for 15 second and removed.

Ductile Materials
The capacity of a material to allow large extensions, i.e. the ability to be drawn out plastically is termed its ductility. A quantitative value of the ductility is obtained by measurement of the percentage elongation or percentage reduction in area

increase in gauge length to fracture Original gauge length Reduction in cross - sectional area of necked portion Reduction in area = Original area Percentage Eleongation =

Malleability
Materials ability to be hammered out into thin sheets such as lead is called malleability.

Brittle Materials
They exhibit relatively small extensions to fracture such as glass and cast iron. There is little or no necking at fracture for brittle materials.

Shear Stress
Material is subjected to a set of equal opposite forces. There is a tendency for one layer of the material to slide over another to produce the form of failure, if this failure is restricted then shear stress () is set up. Shear load P = = Area resisting shear A The shear stress is tangential to the area and has units similar to normal stress, Pa or N/m2. Shear strain () is measured in radians (non dimensional) has no units.

Within the elastic range shear strain is proportional to shear stress. Modulus of rigidity (G) = Shear stress = Shear strain

Single Shear

P A

Double Shear

P 2A

Factor of Safety
Factor of Safety = modified to Factor of Safety = Yield Stress (or Proof Stress) Allowable working Stress Maximum Stress Allowable working Stress

Typical values range from 2.5 (for relatively low consequence, static load) to 10 (for shock load and high Safety risk applications). Load factor = Load at failure Allowable Working Load

Temperature Stresses
When the temperature of a component is increased or decreased the material respectively expands or contracts. If this expansion or contraction is not resisted in any way then the process takes place free of stress. If however, the changes in dimensions are restricted then stresses termed temperature stresses will be set up. L = LT : linear coefficient of expansion
L : original length T : temperature increase

New length:

L = L + L L = L + LT = L(1 + T )

If this expansion is prevented then compressive strain will be produced:

L LL = L L(1 + T )

Since is very small compared with unity then

=
The thermal stress will be:

L LL = = T L L

= E = ET

o If temperature rises then compressive stress will be produced. o If temperature falls then tensile stress will be produced.

Creep
Is the gradual increase of plastic strain in a material with time at constant load, (quasiviscous flow of the metal).

Fatigue
Is the failure of a material under fluctuating stresses each of which is believed to produce minute a mounts of plastic strain. Or fatigue is the property by which they fail at a relatively low value of stress when the stress is repeated or reversed.