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(2) (First) Principle of Mathematical Induction Let P(x) be a proposition (open sentence), if we put A = {x : x N If (1) P(1) is true; p(x) is true} in (1), we get the Principle of Mathematical Induction.
(2) P(k) is true for some k N P(k+1) is true then P(n) is true n N. (3) Second Principle of Mathematical Induction If (1) P(1) is true; (2) 1 i k, P(i) is true P(k+1) is true then P(n) is true n N. [i.e. P(1) P(2) . P(k) is true]
(4) Second Principle of Mathematical Induction (variation) If then (1) P(1) P(2) (2) P(k-1) P(k) is true; is true for some k N\{1} P(k+1) is true
P(n) is true n N.
(5) Second Principle of Mathematical Induction (variation) If then (1) P(1) P(2) . P(m) (2) P(k) is true for some P(n) is true n N. is true;
k N P(k+m) is true
(6) Odd-even M.I. If then (1) P(1) P(2) (2) P(k) is true; k N P(k+2) is true
P(n) is true n N.
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More difficult types of Mathematical Induction (7) Backward M.I. (1) P(n) is true n A, where A is an infinite subset of N; (2) P(k) is true for some then P(n) is true n N. kN P(k1) is true
If
If
(1) P(1) is true; (2) P(2k) is true for some (3) P(k) is true for some k N P(2k+1) is true; kN P(k1) is true
then
P(n) is true n N.
(9) Different starting point (1) P(a) is true, where a N; (2) P(k) is true for some then k N, where k a P(k+1) is true
If
If
(1) P(1) is true; (2) P(k) is true for some Q(k) is true for some k N Q(k) is true k N P(k+1) is true
then
(11) Double M.I. Double M.I. involves a proposition P(m, n) with two variables m, n. is true m, n N; m, n N
If
(2) P(m+1, n) and P(m, n+1) are true for some P(m+1, n+1) is true then P(m, n) is true m, n N.
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Prove that the nth prime number Solution Let P(n) be the proposition :
p n < 22 .
n
p n < 22 .
n
For
P(1),
p1 = 2 < 2 2
is true
P(1)
is true.
Assume
P(i)
s.t. 1 i k , i.e.
For
P(k + 1),
< 22
k +1
p < 22
k +1
Since p1, p2 , ., pk
p k +1 p < 2 2
k +1
P(k + 1)
be the proposition :
a2 = 2 = 22-1 + 1 . k .
P(1) P(2)
is true.
Assume
For
P(k+2),
ak+2
P(k + 2)
By the Second Principle of Mathematical Induction, Odd Even Mathematical Induction Let a1 = 2, a2 = 2 an+2 = an + 1
Prove that
an =
1 (n + 1) + 1 1 + ( 1)n 2 4
].
Solution
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an =
1 (n + 1) + 1 1 + ( 1)n 2 4
].
For P(1),
1 (1 + 1) + 1 1 + ( 1)1 2 4
] ]
P(1) P(2) is true.
For P(2),
1 (2 + 1) + 1 1 + ( 1)2 2 4 k .
Assume
i.e. a k =
1 (k + 1) + 1 1 + ( 1)k 2 4
(*)
, by (*)
1 [(k + 1) + 1] + 1 1 + ( 1)k +1 2 4
]
P(n) is true n .
x + x2 Let f(x) be a convex function defined on [a, b], i.e. f ( x 1 ) + f ( x 2 ) 2f 1 for all x1, x2 [a, b]. 2 For each positive integer n, consider the statement: x + ... + x n I(n) : If xi [a, b], i = 1, 2, , n, then f ( x 1 ) + ... + f ( x n ) nf 1 . n
(a) (b) (c) Solution (a)
Prove by induction that I(2k) is true for every positive integer k. Prove that if I(n) (n 2) is true, then I(n-1) is true.
x + ... + x n I(n) : If xi [a, b], i = 1, 2, , n, then f ( x 1 ) + ... + f ( x n ) nf 1 n For I(21), since it is given that I(2k) x + x2 f ( x 1 ) + f ( x 2 ) 2f 1 . 2 I(21) is true.
Assume
.(1)
For I(2k+1),
f ( x 1 ) + ... + f ( x 2k ) + f ( x 2k +1 ) + ... + f ( x 2k +1 )
x k + ... + x 2k +1 x + ... + x 2k x 2k +1 + ... + x 2k +1 x 1 + ... + x 2k k k 1 2k f + 2 f 2 +1 k = 2 f + f k 2 2 2k 2k x 1 + ... + x 2k x 2k +1 + ... + x 2k +1 = 2 k f + f 2k 2k x 1 + ... + x 2k + x 2k +1 + ... + x 2k +1 = 2 k +1 f 2 k +1 , by (1)
I(2k+1)
is true
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(b)
Assume i.e.
Put
n ,
(k
satisfying
where
Let
S n = a i , prove that
i =1
1 2 S 2 m 1 = 2 m 4m 3m + 1 1 S 2 m = m 4m 2 + 3m + 1 2
( (
) )
....(1) ....(2)
Solution
Let
P(m)
be the proposition :
S2 m 1 = S2m = k
1 m 4m 2 3m + 1 2
1 m 4m 2 + 3m + 1 2 is true for
)
( )
(1)
m=1. 1 k 4k 2 3k + 1 2 . (*)
Assume
P(k)
., i.e. S 2 k 1 =
(a) (b)
For For
1 1 k 4k 2 3k + 1 + 3k 2 = k 4k 2 + 3k + 1 . 2 2
Q(k)
is true.
1 k 4k 2 + 3k + 1 + [3(k + 1)k + 1] 2
1 4k 3 + 12k 2 + 12k + 4 3k 2 + 6k + 3 + (k + 1) 2
[(
) (
1 1 3 2 2 4(k + 1) 3(k + 1) + (k + 1) = (k + 1) 4(k + 1) 3(k + 1) + 1 . 2 2 P(1) is true. P(k) is true Q(k) is true P(k + 1) is true P(n) is true n
P(k + 1) is true.
Since
(1) (2)
By the Principle of Mathematical Induction, P(1) is true. Q(k) is true Q(1) is true
Since
(1) (2)
P(k + 1) is true
Q(k + 1) is true .
Q(n) is true n
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Let
and
Prove that
Solution
f (a , n ) =
n (n 1)...(n a + 1) a! n (n 1)...(n a + 1) a!
(1)
For
P(1), there are two cases: R.H.S. = 1 =1 1! 1(n 1)...(1 a + 1) =0 . a! k (k 1)...(k a + 1) a! P(1) is true.
When a > 1,
L.H.S. = f(a, 1) = 0.
R.H.S. =
(2)
Assume For
P(k)
., i.e.
f (a , k ) =
(2)
(k + 1)k (k 1)...(k a + 2)
a!
= R.H.S.
Comment
n contains a parameter
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Prove that the number of non-negative integral solution sets of the equation x1 + x2 + + xm = n is
Solution
m,n
. . (1)
f(m, n) =
(n + m 1) ! n !(m 1) !
Let P(m, n)
(a)
For In For
P(1, n), The only non-negative integral solution set of the equation (1) , f(1, n) =
(n + 1 1) ! = 1 n !(1 1) !
P(1, n) is true . P(m, 1), The non-negative integral solution sets of the equation x1 + x2 + + xm = 1
are
f(m, 1) =
(1 + m 1) ! = m 1!(m 1) !
P(m, 1)
is true . are true for some m,n . . i.e . . and f(m+1, n) = (2) (3) respectively .
Assume
are For
(n + m ) ! (n + 1) !(m 1) !
(n + m ) !
n !m !
x1 + x2 + + xm + xm+1 = n + 1 may be divided into two parts : xm+1 = 0 or xm+1 > 0 . (i) For
xm+1 = 0 , equation (4) becomes equation (2), and the number of non-negative integral solution sets is f(m, n+1) =
(n + m ) ! (n + 1) !(m 1) !
(ii)
For
xm+1 > 0 , replace xm+1 by xm+1 + 1 and equation (4) becomes: x1 + x2 + + xm + xm+1 = n , and the number of non-negative integral solution sets is f(m+1, n) =
(n + m ) !
n !m !
(n + m ) ! + (n + m ) ! (n + 1) !(m 1) ! n !m !
P(m+1, n+1) is also true .
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