PROGRAMMED INSTRUCTION

DEFINITION
It is a kind of learning in which a program takes the place of a tutor for the student, and leads him through a set of frames of specified behaviours designed and sequenced to make it more probable that he will behave in a given desired way.( Kochchar, S K. 1992) Programmed instruction consists of a network of statements and tests, which direct the student to new statements depending on his pattern of errors. It is based on a particular tool which is called teaching machine. programmed instruction is a planned sequence of experiences, leading to proficiency in terms of stimulus response relationship - James espich & Bill Williams.

HISTORY IN PROGRAMMED LEARNING

Emerged out of experimental researches on operant conditioning. y Learning is change in behavior, i.e. the individual's response to events (stimuli). Behavior can be conditioned by rewarding the right stimulus-response patterns. y It in co-operates principle of reinforcement to effect behavioral changes in successive approximation to the desired goal. y The total behavior is broken down into meaningful operants , which are chained together to form the whole. Programmed instruction offers possibility of providing a conceptual framework-allows planning and organization of learning course with a view to realizing specific, operationally defined objectives. y First programmer- Socrates-developed a programme in geometry recorded by Plato y First programmed text-Gita. Programmed instruction emerged as a complete system of education due to continuous contributions of psychologist.     E.L. Thorndike- in his law of effect used programmed instruction which provides immediate reinforcement to learner s correct response. Sydney. L. Pressey- developed prog.instruction of testing items i.e. multiple choice items. H. B. English- during world war 1-invented a device to help train soldiers squeeze a rifle trigger-has all ingredients of programming. B. F. Skinner- developed operant conditioning (theory of learning) in which behavior of learner is shaped in successive approximation to the desired goal.

CHARACTERISTICS OF PROGRAMMED LEARNING

A learning programme is carefully ordered and organized sequence of material to assure the best possible learning conditions for a student. It uses the principle of reinforcement.

1. ASSUMPTIONS STATED CLEARLY IN WRITING:  Student

 A program builder has to make certain assumptions about the student to whom his program is directed.  Students background in the subject

 Programme builder
 Level of competence  Command of vocabulary: consistent with language of the program.

2. EXPLICITLY STATED OBJECTIVES

 Program designer must determine goals/objectives of the learning program.  Defining of knowledge, skills, attitudes that student is expected to acquire through completion of program.

 All objectives stated- measurable, operational, observable-facilitate development and evaluation of program.

3. LOGICAL SEQUENCE OF SMALL STEPS

Subject matter, broken down into fragments of information

Arranged in an orderly sequence of growing difficulty               Student progresses sequentially to point of increasing difficulty. Help in logical, deliberate development of the learning material. Simplify acquisition of knowledge. Tends to reduce the number of student errors. Requires interaction between student and program. Active involvement of learner. As soon as student makes a response, program informs him of his correctness or mistake. Helps in reinforcement of learning by feedback. Student learns at his pace. Helps review and repeat as required. Can stress on additional material. Can examine student s response and evaluate. By assessing and observing number of errors can improve program as per student need. Help assess student progress-to develop other learning experience accordingly.

4. ACTIVE RESPONDING

5. IMMEDIATE FEEDBACK OF INFORMATION

6. INDIVIDUAL RATE

7. CONSTANT EVALUATION

PRINCIPLES OF PROGRAMMED INSTRUCTION

1. SPECIFICATION OF OBJECTIVES
Programmer should-: y specify objectives of the program in behavioural terms. y Identify terminal behaviour expected from learner at the completion of program. y Specify condition under which the terminal behaviour should be manifested and if any restrictions imposed. y standard of judging the acceptable performance also to be mentioned in definite terms.

2. EMPIRICAL TESTING
After writing initial draft programmer tries it out in 3 phases-: A. Individual try-out: tested on individual on face to face basis. Reaction of individual recorded for each frame. B. Small group try-out: tested on 5-10 representative students of the class for whom it is developed. C. Field try-out: After modification on observations on small group; administered in actual class room.

3. SELF-PACING
       The learner decides the rate at which he progresses through the program. Learner can adjust pace of learning according to his ability and motivation level. Not forced to work with speed of other students of the class. Incorporates the concept of individual differences in teaching-learning. A response must be made by the learner and induces sustained activity. Learner remains busy and active when he works on a program. A good program requires a thorough understanding of the previous frames before moving to the next frames.

4. PRINCIPLE OF ACTIVE RESPONDING

             

Active learner involvement. Teacher can regularly assess the progress of his students. Can find out weakness and can modify the weak portion of his program in the light of student s performance. Student- can continually evaluate his own performance.

5. STUDENT TESTING

DYNAMICS OF PROGRAM CONSTRUCTION

Selection of the subject Definition and assumptions about learner for whom programme is intended. Objectives Paradigm/model - influenced by objectives. Ordering Construction of item in accordance with established learning techniques. Initial testing- of short sequences and revise if needed. Evaluation-after exposure to large number of students. Revision Two directional development of programmed matter with each step functioning as a spring-board for next step and as a re-examination of what happened before.

TYPES/STYLES OF PROGRAMMING
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. The linear The branching The mathetics Adjuncts Computer assisted instruction

1. ADJUNCT PROGRAMMING
     Developed by-Sydney. L. pressy-named it adjunct auto instruction. A large text (may run to pages) followed by test items. After reading information learner answers a series of test item. If any question answered wrong learner directed to the specific page and line to be re-read. Test item need not necessarily cover all points in the paragraph.

  

Test item helps the learner determine whether mastery of content has occurred, clarify points and clear misconceptions. Easy to prepare Best used in industrial context

2. MATHETICS PROGRAMMING
     Used in industrial training field Mathetics-Greek word-mean-process of learning Gilbert-developed mathetics prog.-Involve 3 stages-demonstrate, prompt and release. Present material through backward fading chain. Chain learning- learner learns a series of small pieces of info. or event. This learnt eent becomes stimulus for next piece of info/learning and so on. Criteria response is demonstrated

Presenting sequence retrogressively/through backward fading.

Prompts (responses made act as prompts)

Release of complex chain    Step size as big as required. But limited to a few steps as possible. Learner response-writing down/performing task. Task completion-reinforcement.

3. BRANCHING/INTRINSIC STYLE
    Frames not in numerical sequence. Student s ans. determines which frame he has to seek next. Depending on the ans. Student may branch ahead, or may branch backward. Until he gives right ans. He cannot progress to next frame. Process-: Student attempts the question in a frame

Directed to a frame stating right or wrong and why if wrong .

If right

If wrong

Progress to next frame

Takes back to first frame to answer again or to a sub program

Principles 1. Principle of exposition: Here the whole concept is presented to the student so that he can learn better the complete information which is provided in the home page. It serves two purposes. i.e. teaching and diagnosis. 2. Principle of diagnosis: Here the weakness of learner is identified after exposition and hence we can assess whether the learner could learn what the causes are for it, then it can be modified. 3. Principles of remediation : if a learner chooses wrong alternately, then the learner has to move to a wrong page where remedial instruction is given. Types

 Backward branching  Forward branching Limitation  Guessing  Difficulty in praising branches  May no suit needs of individual learner  High cost  No guarantee if pupil has learned  Can be used only for remedial measure development.

I.
     

LINEAR/EXTRINSIC PROGRAMMING
Exponent-B. F. Skinner Conditioning of each correct steps by immediate reinforcement with some kind of reward or favourable experience-probability for repetition of correct response Contains 2 sets, out of which some key word is missing. The moment student makes a response he is given desired answer Linear-because each learner takes same pathway through the instruction Extrinsic program-learner has no choice of his own in following the path

Steps
A. B. C. D. Information is presented in small steps. Active response of learner Immediate feedback Self-pacing by student

Types 1. Construct response-: Skinnerian type in which the learner has to construct response while going through such formats of programme text. 2. Multiple choice questions-: Sydney L Pressy selected a response on each frame and it is presented in discrimination frame sequence type of programme. 3. Conventional chaining-: John Barlow in this type of formats each frame it is connected to 2nd frame which becomes a part of the stimulus of the 3rd and so on the down line. 4. Skip linear-: It uses the skipping device as it solves problems of review and over review where a bright student may skip the simple programme. 5. Criterion frames-: This is used to direct the learner along linear path according to their responses at those critical situations. The creation frames decides whether the student should go through the particular sequence or not. 6. Ruleg system-: Here the content is organised in terms of rules first and then the examples. The rule is given a complete form and the examples are in incomplete form. A learner has to construct response to complete the example. 7. Egrule system-: It is just the opposite to the ruleg system. The content is organised in terms of examples and then the rules. The examples are given in complete form and the rule is in incomplete form. Limitations 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
Lack of motivation Serial order of learning No freedom of choice Tendency to guess Use in limited areas

II.
 

COMPUTER ASSISSTED INSTRUCTION

To impart formal and informal education Facilitates instant access to info with infinite patience, accuracy and systematic max. learning for all learners.

 

Provides complete individualisation of instruction. Mechanizes human brain.

Types of CAI
   Logo- simple programming language. Program provide instruction to make their own prog. to draw /generate designs on screen. Simulation-computer program enables student to mount an experiment in symbolic form, Controlled learning-indicates both drill and practise. Supplementary to regular curriculum taught by teacher.to review and practise skills on individual basis. Immediate feedback provided to learner s as they work through a set of exercises. Record of individual student furnished to the teacher for evaluation

Role of teacher
     Teacher will be liberated from routine duties. Can compile huge data rapidly and accurately.

Experts needed
Computer software developers Lesson writer System operator

ADVANTAGES OF PROGRAMMED INSTRUCTION

        Student kept active and alert Makes learning interesting Eliminate social and emotional problems No problem of discipline Individualised instruction Self-pacing Teacher is relieved for much important roles Can work from own place        Useful in memorising facts Useful were human instruction not available More communication potential than textbooks Item by item scoring Challenge to learner Immediate feedback Inspires creative thinking and judgement

LIMITATIONS
Problem of quantity and quality Shortage of good programmers Resistance Cost Novelty wears off Less teacher pupil contact Restricts freedom of choice-cramps imagination and initiative Not suitable in language learning-speaking

STEPS IN PROGRAMME WRITING

1. 2. 3. Preparatory phase Writing phase Validation phase

PREPARATORY PHASE
It involves  Viewing the programme on any topic.  Deciding to prepare a programme  Selecting a topic  Prepare a content outline  Specification of objective in behavioural terms.  Specifications (assumptions about learner)  Pre-requisite skills.  Further analysis of goals.

  

Preparation of pre test Terminal behaviour. Expected performance of the learner at the end of a course. Preparation of post- test

WRITIING PHASE
The writing of a programme involves five steps: y y y y y y Present the material in frames-stimulus and its context, cues, response evoked by stimuli, enrichment of material. Ensuring active student response. Recording student responses for revising Provide answers for confirmation or correction of student responses Use prompts to guide student response-cues in the prog frame to guide students to make correct response. Provide careful sequencing of the frames-depends on description and analysis of behaviours to be taught through program and condition required for learning various tasks.

VALIDATION PHASE
When first draft is ready:      Try-out and revision Individual try-out Small group try-out Master validation Editing, reviewing, revising, and modifying the program for final preparation .

APPLICATION OF PROGRAMMED INSTRUCTION IN EDUCATION

y y y y y y y For regular instruction Enrichment of curriculum Remedial instruction Industry Military Correspondence courses Agriculture y y y y y y Non formal education Health education Banks Exceptional and handicapped children Psychotherapy Modification of behaviour

CONCLUSION
As with other teaching methods programmed instruction also has it merits and demerits. Wise utilisation of this method in combination with others might yield optimal results.

REFERENCES
1. 2. K P Neeraja; TEXT BOOK OF NURSING EDUCATION ; 1 ed; Jaypee publications; Pg no: 267 270. st S Sankaranarayan, B Sindhu; LEARNING AND TEACHING ; 1 Ed; Brain fill Publishers; Pg no; 150 -152. 3. B T Basavanthappa; NURSING EDUCATION ; Jaypee Publications;1st ed; Pg no: 481 483.
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