LEARNING AREA

SOCIAL SCIENCES
FOCUS AND

HISTORY GRADE HISTORY GRADE

TEACHERS GUIDE

Phase Review Senior Phase (Grades 8 and 9)

The three learning outcomes for History
Outcome 1:
The learner is able to use enquiry skills to investigate the past and the present.

Outcome 2:
The learner is able to demonstrate historical knowledge and understanding.

Outcome 3:
The learner is able to interpret aspects of history.

The three domains are concerned with investigating an aspect of the past/present, after which the researched information is evaluated and classified, as well as interpreted. Interpretation entails giving meaning to the researched contents. The result of the above should be well-composed recounts, descriptions and explanations of history.

The more the number of facts researched, the more valid the interpretation.
It is therefore not only about mastering knowledge of the history of mankind, but also about acquiring research and interpretation skills. However, knowledge remains more important and therefore the contents on which each module is based is summarized in the Teachers Guide. A list of definitions of terms, as well as other aspects related to the teaching of History, appears at the end of the Teachers Guide. It is strongly recommended that the teacher studies this list. In Grade 8 the focus is on Land and Power in our changing world, so that the learner can experience as a logical transition the focus on Human Rights (Grade 9) that follows from this. In Grade 7 the learner was prepared for this struggle, because the focus was on the shifting of borders as a result of trade. In this phase the teacher must let the learners focus on two questions: Who was involved? and How did it affect the lives of the people?

DEFINITIONS AND HINTS FOR SUCCESSFUL TEACHING OF HISTORY

DEFINITIONS

Analyse means to take something apart in the finest detail. In the process it is investigated, considered, classified and relevant aspects are highlighted. Reliable / credible / can it be believed? A source is reliable if it can be believed. Remember, if you know only one thing, it is correct until it is proven incorrect. The reliability of a source is enhanced as other independent sources confirm the facts and their interpretation. Source: In history source is used as a collective noun for that from which the historian can withdraw information. Usefulness: A source that contains information about a subject being studied, is a useful source for that subject. The usefulness of a source increases for the historian when an especially useful piece of insight into the subject is found in the text. Empathy: Empathy means that a person puts himself in the circumstances, needs, emotions, values and norms of the people in a specific space and time. Evaluate means to weigh something (facts, options, interpretations). It is like placing new information on one side of the scale while the well-known information, facts, conclusions, deductions and opinions, etc. are placed on the other side. Fact: A fact is anything that exists on its own; it is something that can be observed directly; it is an event, physical or spiritual, that actually took place or was experienced; something for which proof exists that it did happen or was experienced, and that which is true and unchangeable and can be corroborated by witnesses. Conclusions / Deductions: If facts about a matter are lacking, the truth can be completed by adding conclusions and deductions. In the case of a gap in knowledge between two facts the ignorance is bridged by a conclusion. Historical context of the information relates to the question of where the contents fit into the larger picture of history. Hearsay-witness is a witness who did not personally see and experience that about which he is giving witness, but who merely relates what someone else has told him. (Also see primary source eyewitness.) Interpret means to interpret and explain the facts and give them meaning by linking them to other information. The contents can also be interpreted in terms of certain concepts such as cause and effect, trends, similarities and differences, etc. (Four organisational concepts.) Continuity and change: Changes in the course of history can either happen over long periods, or over very short periods, such as political conditions after a coup detat. Changes become visible and can be interpreted when a comparison of the old and the new is made. When the changes are evaluated the following question can be asked: Did it happen over a long or short period of time?

Criticism means to measure. When criticism is applied to that which is criticised, it is measured with some or other measuring instrument with a specific standard in mind. Chronology means the order in which the aspects of an event take place. A chronological approach to history means that the events are placed in the order in which they occurred. Reason (Motivation): Someone who creates the contents for a specific reason, selects the facts as well as the words that fit his purpose with his story. Research: To investigate accurately and scientifically. Research is a systematic investigation, study of, inter alia, sources, material, phenomena to establish facts and make a new contribution to the knowledge in a specific area. Objectivity / subjectivity: In short, subjective means to interpret information with your emotions and personal value system, while objective means to make your interpretation as impersonal as possible. The subjectivity of the creator plays a large role in the choice of the facts as well as of the words he uses to report the events, as well as his interpretation of the facts. The subjectivity of a source can, for our purpose, be indicated by means of two key concepts, namely prejudice and bias, as well as partiality and impartiality. Independent source is a source not influenced by other sources. Similarities and differences, as well as trends: A trend originates when information indicates that the events are moving in a specific direction. For example: There is a trend that since the beginning of the twentieth century the value of shares has increased over time, regardless of price fluctuations over the short term. Similarities refer to matters that are more or less the same. It does not mean exactly the same, however. Towns have many similarities such as police stations, municipal offices, schools, libraries, streets, storm water drains, etc., but no two towns are exactly the same in all respects. Cause / reason and effect: The cause/reasons precede an event and usually give rise to the event. The effect, on the other hand, usually follows after the event. Apart from the distinction between cause and effect, one must also understand that there are immediate as well as long-term causes and effects, direct and indirect causes and effects, as well as causes caused by people or the environment. Opinion: A personal judgement on a matter is known as an opinion. As in the case of a conclusion and deduction the facts of a matter are used, but the logical argument is influenced by the subjective judgements, prejudices and partiality of the creator. A good indication of an opinion on a small scale is usually the use of adjectives and adverbs in a sentence. For example: The man is wearing a jacket unchangeable fact, the man is actually wearing a jacket. But: The man is wearing a really nice jacket really nice could be replaced by any number of other words, such as stupid, old-fashioned, etc., depending on the judgement of the person looking at the jacket. Partiality (See prejudice / partiality.)

Primary source: This refers to the first source of information on a specific matter, event, etc. The creator, in any appropriate medium, of a source that refers to what he personally saw, experienced and observed, is an eyewitness. He will always be an eyewitness of what he personally saw, experienced and observed. Mandela, e.g., will always be an eyewitness of what Mandela has said. A second type of primary source (coming to us from English literature) is the source which in the same time as being studied and to which it relates, come into being without the creator being an eyewitness. For this reason a cartoon or lead story in a newspaper, where the editor was not an eyewitness of the event but is commenting on it, will also be regarded as a primary source. Propaganda: Propaganda is a truth enticing people to a specific goal. In the truth of the propaganda, facts are omitted and/or destroyed, half-truths or even total untruths are told, usually in emotional and inflammatory language. People who are striving for a specific goal and who are trying to unite as many people as possible behind their goal, could use propaganda. Political parties often use propaganda for their beliefs. Secondary source: The information of a secondary source rests mostly on information form primary or other secondary sources. Creator of a source: The creator of a source can be a natural person or an institution. Thus, for example, a newspaper is an institution, but still its own creator, like an encyclopaedia. Technically speaking, the creator of any content is the source of the content because the content cannot come into being without the creator. Theme / aspect / issue: All sources as well as every chapter, paragraph and sentence, are built around a specific theme. The theme is therefore the central issue in the source / paragraph / sentence. Skill / expertise / ability develops in a person when he understands what a specific skill (e.g. analysing) means, what the value / meaning of the ability is, as well as by the repeated, successful practical application thereof. In the case of a learner of history working with sources, he must therefore know and understand the meaning of inter alia analysis, evaluation and interpretation, know the value of each and be able to apply it to his sources. Context / connection: The connection between two or more matters is that which is common to them, that which connects them, that which represents their connection with one another. Prejudice / partiality: Prejudice literally means to judge beforehand. Such a judgement of a matter, person, event, etc. is made without the necessary knowledge or debate about it. Elements of unreasonableness, unfairness and groundlessness of this previously formed point of view, are signs of prejudice. Partiality (to choose sides) is about taking a stand for something, knowing full well what the facts of the matter are, but disregarded or ignoring, knowing full well what the facts of the matter are, but emphasising facts with which he does agree. Truth: The combining and integrating of facts and their interpretation form a truth. It is like pearls and the thread that together form a necklace. If the facts are pearls and the interpretation is the thread that keeps them together, the pearl necklace is the truth. Be aware that several truths can be deduced from the same facts, because the deductions, conclusions, opinions and eventually interpretations are made by people from their perception of the truth.

Communication writing a historical essay.

Previously we emphasized the basic critical skills of analysis, evaluation and interpretation for uncovering the creator and contents of a source, in order to determine the truth about the subject. Until now the learner of history was therefore the big critic and the sources were taken apart and possibly placed into categories. This was, however, only the second of the five processes for creating a historical truth. In the next phase of the creative process the skills already acquired are still used, but now in a creative role. The process of analysis is now reversed into a process of syntheses. The facts, deductions, conclusions and possible opinions are once again weighed and interpreted, but this time in a positive light, namely how they can be used to tell the story. For the learner of history the process of creating a new content must now be mastered. In the creative process he must keep in mind that his creation will be analysed, weighed and interpreted in the same way as the sources he has used up to now. In creating his story he must therefore take care to: be a credible witness of what he has researched; in all honesty create the truth about the story; use the information in such a way that he will make a well-considered, logical and balanced creation; use the facts correctly; make valid deductions and conclusions; not voice ill-considered opinions; treat the people in the story with empathy, but remain objective; eventually provide a reliable product which makes a significant contribution to his own and other peoples knowledge of the subject. Remember: a good historical essay also has an introduction and a conclusion. In the introduction the reasons for the study are indicated; possible hypotheses (points of departure) researched, etc. In the conclusion of the essay the contents are summarized and a final synopsis and interpretation are given.

How must source-based questions be handled?

Keep the following in mind when this type of question is answered. 1. 2. 3. First read all the documents carefully and study possible photographs, sketches and cartoons. Get the total picture of what the question is about. Quickly apply the source checklist to each source. Read through the questions and look at the marks allocated to each answer. A question worth one mark does not need a paragraph answer. A short sentence or phrase or even a single word should be sufficient! But a question worth four marks cannot be answered in a single sentence! Keep your answer short Use THE SOURCES referred to in the question.

4. 5.

Certain types of questions have specific types of answers:

1. Some questions require you to use your knowledge only which means that the answer must be in your head. Others may require you to use your knowledge and the source; others only the source or sources. Compare sources make sure that you use all the sources mentioned. Make use of proof from the sources to corroborate your answer means that you must use quotations from the sources. Evaluate sources with reference to their value, or lack of it, to a certain matter. Determine the reliability of a source. Analyse the contents or creator of the source means that you would write down what you understand of the contents or learn about the creator from the sources. Make a syntheses of the contents of a source or two means you must use the information from the sources given to create a new story.

2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Specific instructions must be given:

For example: 1. 2. 3. Read all the sources on the specific subject and apply the source checklist to each source. By means of the process of comparison determine the correctness / reliability of each source. Make a complete synthesis of the story described in the sources.

Preparation (this facet must actually be completed during the unlocking phase of the work) 1. 2. Read the contents and ensure that you know where the contents fit into the bigger picture of history. Obtain as many meaningful headings as possible to which the detail can be linked. The main idea of a paragraph can / must be used as heading. Mark all headings in a clear way in the text or write them down. Learn the headings or main ideas of all the paragraphs in the way set out below. Determine the first and most important fact of a specific paragraph or a heading and determine the key idea of the most important fact. Underline it or write it down. Then determine the 2nd, 3rd, etc. most important facts. (In other words, put the facts in order of importance.)

3. 4. 5.

Summarising, making notes and creating synthesis

Regarding the aspect of summarising sections of the contents with a view to essay-type questions and making notes on other sections of the contents, there are widely different ideas. Ultimately this is a conflict between those who are in favour of writing and those who are not.

Those who are pro-writing point out that they order the content in such a way that they can learn it; some say they find it easier to learn work in their own handwriting; others say the handbooks are expensive and must last a long time and therefore the learner must create a handbook in which he can write and scribble to his hearts content. Some learners like summarising, because it shows how hard they work! Those who are antiwriting regard it as a meaningless activity to rewrite the book, because you can write something without having to think about it, etc. Learners who are forced to summarise, usually hate it because they regard it as a waste of time. Whatever your point of view, keep the following in mind: 1. What you spend your time on must make a contribution to reaching the goal you have set yourself, namely success. The summary or notes must therefore help you do better in tests and exams. It must facilitate the learning process and therefore knowing the contents. Summarising the contents does not guarantee success. The learner must create a synthesis when he works from more than one source.

2. 3. 4.

Keep the following in mind regarding summaries: 1. 2. 3. The summary must tell the story in fewer words, not fewer facts. The process of summarising must not cut off the links between facts. The summary and your study method in other words the process of knowing go together. Remember the following: Every person will look for key thoughts in sentences to which he can link the thought. It is better to use nouns rather than verbs as key words. The summary can also be a scheme according to which you can learn the work. Have another look at the section in this manual / chapter on the learning process. When you use the summary for learning purposes, you must keep the handbook handy so that you can link between the key thoughts. Remember, when you write the test or exam you must answer an essay-type question in full sentences.

GRADE 8 MODULE 1
Land And Power Learning Programme Review
IN GRADE 8 THE THEME LAND AND POWER IS COVERED IN 4 MODULES.

In module 1 the focus falls on two different revolutions: a political revolution (the French Revolution) and a technological revolution, the Industrial Revolution in Britain.

For the teachers convenience, content regarding these two revolutions is included in this guide. The frame or reference for the class discussion is the Industrial Revolution, as the world in which the learners live is one of changing technology. A visit to the local municipal offices or a power-station / water-purification plant could help in understanding the services provided by the local authorities. A possible worksheet for such a visit is included in the module. In Grade 7 the learners were introduced to the shifting of borders (introduction to the theme Land) as a result of trade, which links up with the theme Power. Buying and selling as well as labour practices through which History learners are introduced to paid labour and union principles, could be viable projects. The content choice as prescribed by the syllabus mentions only the French Revolution as theme. In Module 1 there are step-by-step instructions on how the learners must tackle their own project on the theme. Learners enjoy learning from one another and feedback on their projects to the class is therefore an excellent learning opportunity. The feedback as well as the written project must be evaluated in accordance with Departmental instructions. For this purpose simplified evaluation scales are given on p. 10. Include the Memorandums that follow in your Teachers Portfolio, along with your own explanation of what you want to achieve. At the end of the module only a comparative study of the two revolutions is used to ensure that the learners understand the similarities and differences between the two revolutions. Our aim is actually the difference between communism and capitalism.

In Module 2 the focus shifts from the foreign review to the industrialisation in our own country, to the diamond- and gold-fields and the sugar plantations in SA. The power struggle in this module focuses on the earliest trade union movements, but also the Zulu wars against the British, and the SA War. Videos that can be used as excellent background material are the box-office hit Chaka Zulu and the documentaries that can be order from Edulib, but which are also available in most libraries, namely Scorched Earth (Afrikaans: Verskroeide Aarde).

Module 3 deals with colonialism, a natural consequence of the Industrial

Revolution in Britain, a search for new markets. In Geography the learners learn about natural resources, which link up with our History theme. A joint excursion, e.g. to a monument from the colonial era (e.g. the Castle in Cape Town), could address tourism as a resource. An example of a worksheet on an excursion (to the Castle) follows. In English T1 and T2 propaganda is discussed. Learners should be given the opportunity in collaboration with the English teachers, if possible, to revise types of sources and the interpretation thereof again.

In Module 4 the focus is on the First World War. Manufacturing processes explain to the learners the turnaround required in a countrys economic production in times of war. A visit to an arms factory or manufacturers of clothing, tents, food, etc. should be planned in conjunction with the Economics teachers. The main idea for the Grade 8 year is therefore that when it comes to the division of land and power, the degree of co-operation between population groups or classes will determine whether everyone will co-exist peacefully. Every lesson has been planned in such a way that learners can always have an opportunity to participate in their own education. When the group evaluates an individuals work, the teacher should also indicate the marks on the report card, even if the evaluation of learners by learners is not always accurate. An example of a report card, based on the reading of the WCEDs Record sheet is attached to this guide. The marks on the report card are calculated in fours, as evaluation will be based on these four levels in future.

STEP BY STEP THROUGH MODULE 1, GRADE 8

A. ACTIVITIES
The idea is to give you the necessary exercises in the order required by the report card. Three skills exercises, followed by a summary test. E.g. Subject 1: Sources P.1 P.2 Know-one-another exercise Answers cannot be wrong, but may be incomplete. Learners must learn that no answer means no score. Activity 2. This distinction in performance levels must motivate the learners. The objective of the exercise is to learn to do evaluation themselves and to accept it from the group. Notice 1. The learner awards a mark for accuracy. Source A: The summary test out of 10: MEMO 1(a) ruling /1/ 1(b) municipality /1/ (c) labourers/workers/cleaners 1(c) money/salary /2/ 1(d) sweep the streets /remove garbage bags / any /1/ 1(e) littering: throwing garbage around /1 damage to property: damaging property / breaking windows / climbing onto the roof of a car / any 2/ violence: strikers who attack /1/ the police / each other / bystanders /1/ Total. /10/ P.6 Questions for discussion:1(a) head-scratching and expression on the faces indicate lack of understanding (b) Any meaningful differences: clothes/behaviour: person planting the flag compared with witch-doctor/etc. 2(a)The flag symbolises the seafarers annexing of the coast as their property (b) Any, seafarers: they appear self assured OR natives: they do not understand what is happening.

P.2 P.4

3 Advantageous for seafarers: they get raw materials/articles of barter/any. Not advantageous for natives: they lose raw materials/are exploited.

P.7 P.8

Activity 3

Group discussion: Answers cannot be wrong.

Test. Please use in place of or together with the test on p.4. MEMO 1(a) Fact /1/ give exact numbers /2/ 1(b) opinion /1/ no proof of this in the source /2/ 2(a) Any, the reason determines the viewpoint, e.g. prejudice /1/ they see only their side of the matter /2/ 2(b) Any sentence that proves prejudice /1/ Total. /10/

P 10 The evaluation grid is to give the learners an idea of self-assessment. Teachers should adapt the wording of the Level definition to the type of activity for which it is used. This is only a general attempt to define Knowledge and Understanding. P.12 A very difficult exercise that requires a great deal of language proficiency, as well as selection, interpretation and communication. A reception of this exercise, each time with a different complaint about e.g. municipal services (see the municipal account on p.24 for the types of services about which complaints could be lodged) is a good indication of the progress individuals are making in handling problems correctly. P.14 Exercise in giving reasons for answers: You can keep the allocation of marks as is, or award 2 marks for every reason, depending on how you want to use the exercise. The two best answers 5 + 5 could be used as a test mark, but the total out of 4 could also be used as an ordinary test of skill. P.15 Source D 1. primary source /1/ Eye-witness report of the events /2/ 2. ruling class /1/: He receives /1/ the labour of the soccer players 3. working class /1/: Their labour (soccer) is to the benefit of the school /1/ 4. Both are possible: fact /1/ the cartoonist could be one of the players/one of the people involved /2/ OR opinion /1/ the cartoonist is making fun of adults (e.g. professional players) who are acting like children /2/ Total. /10/ Please ask the learners to glue a piece of material and a thread of cotton in the blank space on p.16. Point out the difference between spinning (the thread) and weaving (the piece of material). Any example will do. P.16 Writing exercise: cause: spinning-wheel knocked over /2/ result: eight shuttles had to be assembled /2/ reason: improvement of weaving machine /2/ result: unemployed AND/OR machines that operated differently OR incentive for inventors to experiment OR promotion of the capitalistic ideal /2/ Total. /8/ P.17 MEMO: 3, 4, 2, 6, 1, 7, 8, 4. /8/ P.18 Use the worksheet to get the parents/guardians involved. Any meaningful application of agreement is in order. P.19 With the time-line activity we are trying to get the learners personally involved in their own history and to learn how to index and record accurately. Instruction activity: In the allocation of marks, the ability to draw is not important; learners must just draw large rocks at the bottom and ones gradually smaller, on top. /10/

P.21 Please collaborate with Economics/Geography/Technology so that the learners can creatively make their own contribution on their portfolio. P.22 These answers depend on the subjects for discussions raised by the class. Instead of the telephone number of the Child line, learners could fill in the number of the local police. P.23 Sources G, H and I are primary sources. The other answers may differ a great deal as interpretations of the sources will differ. P. 26 1. Yes, mutton production has virtually tripled. Bear in mind that the population has grown, so the demand has also increased. 2. Yes, mutton production has tripled, whereas beef production has doubled. 3. The reason will determine the marks, not the Yes/No. The reason at no. 2 may be repeated, as well as any meaningful idea. P.27 Communism puts the interests of the group above those of the individual; the ideal is a workers paradise. Capitalism is based on the initiative of the individual to apply his talents to enrich himself (and, in the process, others). Please see the example of a worksheet for an excursion and the record sheet attached hereto.

B. MINIMUM CONTENT THE FRENSH REVOLUTION DEFINITION OF WORDS: Democracy:

When people are governed in accordance with the wishes of the majority. The people take part in government via their representatives.

Monarchy:
Government by (members of) royal house.

Nationalism:
A strong and passionate love for the fatherland. An own flag and anthem are national symbols binding a nation together.

Republicanism:
The wish to bring about a peoples government by proclaiming a republic.

Liberalism:
The right of every person to individual freedom. The Latin root word means free.

CHARACTERISTICS OF A REVOLUTION
The purpose of a political revolution is to overthrow the existing government or order. During the French Revolution the dissatisfied subjects or workers wanted to overthrow the Old Order, namely the monarchy, to institute their own political system, the New Order. The Industrial Revolution was a social revolution in which machine power replaced manual labour. When the political order changes, it also brings about changes in the social and economic order of the political order. The French Revolution can be described as a short, bloody struggle. The change brought about by a political revolution can be contrasted with the slower change brought about by the Industrial Revolution in England. The French Revolution claimed many human lives. A political revolution usually entails bloodshed. No loss of life can be directly attributed to the Industrial Revolution. Any revolution in one country affects other countries with which, e.g., there are trade links. Today, with our advanced technological communication techniques (TV, Internet, etc.) the effects are visible much more quickly. The ideas of the French Revolution spread to Europe and even to South Africa. These ideas were the start of a new democratic order. The technological developments during the Industrial Revolution affected the whole world. The ideology of capitalism was spread around the world in this way.

CAUSES OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION

The French monarchy, especially kings Louis XIV, XV and XVI, had absolute power to rule. In their research learners will come across synonyms for absolute monarch such as despot, monarchist, absolute sovereign and even totalitarian. The government by the French royal house was the most important political cause of the French Revolution. The king controlled the a) legislative; b) executive; and c) judicial power and was also the head of the d) state church.

In effect, this meant that he

a) b) c) could make any laws he wanted (e.g. levy taxes); could dismiss ministers who dared to differ from him; could dismiss judges if he wanted to and by means of the letters de Cachet (a blank warrant with only the kings seal on it) could have anyone arrested and put in prison for an unlimited period of time without a trial; could have people persecuted who did not want to join the Catholic Church in France. The king therefore even decided on the religion of the people of France. The king had his own information service. In every province he had his administrators, and his town councils reported to him on towns and cities. King Louis XIV therefore owned France and the French people and could rightfully say, I am the state.

d)

The most important cause of the French Revolution was class inequality. The richest members of the nobility lived in their luxurious castles around the kings palace in Versailles. The nobility and higher clerics did not pay taxes. They exploited their labourers by means of unreasonable taxes and services and could not be sentenced to corporal or capital punishment. They aided and abetted the king in squandering state money.

The clerics formed the second class. The French Roman Catholic Church owned onefifth of the French territory, therefore the higher clerics (officials, bishops, priests, monks, etc.) were rich. Like the nobility, they were not subject to state laws, but clerics who broke the law were tried by a special ecclesiastical court. The lower clerics, on the other hand, neglected their clerical duties in an effort to earn enough money to survive. The third class consisted of the middle class, the labourers and the serfs. The middle class or bourgeoisie included educated people and rich businessmen, but they had no political rights. The group wanted to change the system of government and the leaders of the French Revolution came from their ranks. The labourers were poor farmers who worked like slaves in rural areas. They also had no political or social privileges. The serfs belonged to the nobility, as far as their bodies and their property were concerned. Many were unemployed and hungry and could therefore easily be incited to rebellion. Various economic causes drove France to the brink of bankruptcy. Unequal taxes exempted the rich, but the third class had to pay approximately 80% of their income in tax. Corrupt tax officials saw to it that two-thirds of the taxes went into their own pockets and only one-third into the state coffers. The public funds were quickly squandered at the royal court, without anyone bothering to do any bookkeeping.

Marie Antoinette, wife of Louis XVI, was a spendthrift. She kept 500 servants in the palace, and the king had 2 000 horses solely for his own pleasure. After 1750 France took part in expensive wars such as the Seven Years War and the American War of Independence. French soldiers fighting in America saw how the American people had a say in their own government. This war was therefore not only an economic cause, but also gave the soldiers the idea of representative government. Philosophers writings on the injustice and shocking conditions in France also incited the wish for freedom. In his Social Contract Rousseau (1712 to 1778) wrote that power should be vested in the people, not the king. He created the motto of the French Revolution, namely:

FREEDOM, EQUALITY AND FRATERNITY

In his Spirit of the Law Montesquieu (1689 to 1755) called for the separation of the legislative, executive and judicial powers. In his Persian Letters he criticised and ridiculed the king. Voltaire (1694 to 1778) ridiculed the weaknesses of the king and the nobility to such an extent that he ended up in the hated Bastille, the state prison. In his English Letters he advocated the same powers that the English people had in the government of their country, for the French people. He went one step further and also ridiculed the shortcomings of the church.

THE COURSE OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION

After the American War of Independence, the French ministers advised Louis XVI to convene a meeting of the States General, which last met in 1614, to find a solution for the critical financial situation. The king wanted the three classes to meet in separate rooms, as in the past. He convened the meeting for 5 May 1789 and the delegates / representatives were as follows: 300 members of the nobility, 300 members of the clerics and 600 from the third class. The third class insisted on a joint meeting and a division of votes. The king refused and had the doors of the assembly hall locked. Under the leadership of Mirabeau the third class met as the National Assembly on the royal tennis courts and undertook to draw up a new constitution for France. The French Revolution now spread violently. Castles and monasteries were burnt down and farmers refused to pay further taxes. Members of the nobility fled the country. An army, the National Guard, was formed to maintain law and order and the Tri-colour (red, white and blue) was accepted as the national flag. On 4 and 5 August 1789 the National Assembly took decisions to end the Old Order. After that the Declaration of Human Rights was issued. All the people would be equal and free, the people would have a say in the government, and freedom of the press, speech and conscience was guaranteed. The king was detained as a prisoner in Paris. The new constitution was completed in 1791. The most important features were that the state powers were separated: the National Convention would consist of elected members and the powers of the king were curtailed. When neither Germany nor Austria intervened to save the king and the nobility, Louis and Marie Antoinette tried to flee. They were detained in Paris as traitors. Robespierre, a member of the National Convention, demanded that they be removed and that France become a republic. In January 1793 the king and his wife were beheaded and a period known as the Reign of Terror followed, during which thousands of people from the previously privileged classes were beheaded. The guillotine was used for executions. The rest of the world was shocked by these executions and the rulers of Western Europe sent their armies to the French borders. New uprisings threatened in France. A Committee of Public Safety was established, with Robespierre as one of its members, to take action against the enemies of France. The French army went into battle singing the Marseillaise, the future French anthem, and defeated the enemy. Robespierre became the president of the National Convention and insisted that the Reign of Terror be stepped up. Any suspect person, even Danton, one of Robespierres political opponents, was beheaded on the guillotine. The Reign of Terror ended in July 1794, when Roberspierre himself was beheaded, and the National Convention could now complete the new constitution. A board of five directors, assisted by a parliament comprising two houses, would govern France from then on.

CONSEQUENCES OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION Consequences in France:

France became a republic and the royalty with all its privileges was abolished. The people could elect their representatives. The wishes of the majority were served, therefore a democratic government came into being. The people also had more say in local government. The vote was gradually extended, until all men had the vote by the end of the nineteenth century in full.

Consequences in Europe:
The Directorate appointed Napoleon Bonaparte as head of the French army, with the order to end the corruption and establish the new ideas. Napoleons officers and soldiers were barefoot and dressed in rags. He promised them honour, glory and riches and kept his promise. The French army grew into the most powerful army in Europe with a characteristic discipline. In France itself Napoleon eradicated corruption. A network of roads and canals were developed and the economic problems were addressed and solved. Napoleon promoted and rewarded personality traits such as fairness, honesty and diligence. His soldiers idolised him. Everywhere the French army fought, they were welcomed as liberators by the downtrodden people. The French ideas were spread everywhere, which led to the fall of royalty and the creation of republics. In this way the democratic ideal was spread far and wide. A lasting consequence of the French Revolution was nationalism. A common language, culture and religion promoted love for the fatherland. This love for their own people and fatherland was strengthened by the institution of national symbols such as an own flag and national anthem. Where Napoleon was initially welcomed as a liberator, the emerging national sentiment now worked against him. Nations wanted their independence and he was finally defeated by the Austrian, Prussian and British armies at Waterloo and banned to St. Helena.

Effect on South Africa:

In 1794 the Netherlands became an ally of France against Britain. In 1795 England wanted to prevent the French from capturing the Cape for the Netherlands and sent a fleet to carry out the first British occupation of the Cape. After the Peace of Amiens in 1802 the Cape was handed back to the Batavian Republic (the Netherlands). Two South African districts, Graaff-Reinet and Swellendam, rebelled against the government of the VOC in 1795. They founded their own republics, based on the ideas and principles of the French Revolution, e.g. the right to rebel against oppression and the ideal of government by the people. Philantropic ideas that originated in France became established in South Africa. The idea of freedom and equality with regard to peoples not of European origin and the underprivileged was spread by missionaries. The Reverend Read of the London Missionary Society, the Reverend Van der Kemp and Dr Philip introduced these ideas. Border conflicts later led to the institution of Ordinance no. 50, which revoked all the restrictions on the movements of the Khoi-Khoin. This ordinance caused such discontent that it can be regarded as one of the most important causes of the Great Trek.

THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION CONCEPTS: Industrial Revolution:

A gradual change from one situation (manual labour) to another (machine power).

Britain:
During the Industrial Revolution Britain was a union comprising England, Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland.

Industries:
A business in which a natural product is processed in such a way that it becomes more useful to people.

Spinning:
Where one thread is formed by joining fibers together.

Weaving:
Where various threads are intertwined to form a piece of material. Lengthwise threads are called the warp, and crosswise threads are the woof.

Capitalist:
A person who has a lot of money and uses it to make more money, by his own initiative and/or labour.

BACKGROUND, i.e. CONDITIONS BEFORE THE REVOLUTION HOME INDUSTRIES:

At the beginning of the 18 century about 75% of the people in Britain lived on farms around small towns. Because farming methods were still rather primitive, the people in the community were dependent on one anothers products and services. Everyone on the farm had to help with the planting, sowing and reaping, because wheat was, e.g., supplied to the shopkeeper in exchange for sugar and other necessities. Every family was virtually self-sufficient. Grandma looked after the children, because the older children had to help in the home industry. Spinning wheels and small looms were operated by hand or foot. The more industrious everyone was, the more products were made and the quality of each product was the pride of the whole family.
th

TRANSPORT
Roads were impassable. Wagons drawn by oxen and horses moved slowly and a visit to the nearest town was a social outing for the farmer and his family. A heavily laden wagon was an invitation to highway robbers and the wagon also easily got stuck in the potholes in the road. The fastest transport was by boat on the river or by ship at sea. Britain was a large trading power and wanted to provide manufactured products to its many colonies. Britain was rich in iron (for manufacturing machines) and coal (to be used as fuel). The home industries could not produce the products needed by the colonies quickly enough. Fortunately there were people in Britain who had the initiative and expertise required to design and make machines which could speed up production.

THE TEXTILE INDUSTRY

A continuous demand for more spun thread for woven products impelled the spinners to find a better, faster method or machine. The demand for cotton and wool thread increased steadily. People and animals such as donkeys had to provide the driving power for the machines and it was only during the Industrial Revolution that water and steam power took over this role.

JAMES HARGREAVES AND THE SPINNING JENNY

In 1733 John Kay improved the small loom, bringing about an even greater demand for spun thread. The young daughter of the woodworker James Hargreaves inadvertently knocked over his spinning-wheel, which gave Hargreaves the bright idea to mount more spools on the spinning wheel axle, so that the machine could now spin on eight spools at he same time. A negative consequence of this invention was that 7 people lost their jobs. The spinners were so afraid of losing their jobs that they broke into Hargreavess house and destroyed the Spinning Jenny. Hargreaves moved to Nottingham and designed a larger, better machine for his new factory. Other inventors heard about Hargreavess success and were spurred on to new inventions.

MEANS OF TRANSPORT
John Loudon McAdam was born in the small town of Ayr in Scotland in 1756. As a child he designed roads for his toy cars. After his fathers death when he was 14, he went to live with his uncle in New York. He became a rich trader and returned to Ayr when he was 27. He experimented in road-building until he perfected the following well-known technique: he built the bottom layer with large stones, then a layer of medium-sized stones, a third layer of even smaller stones and then the last layer consisting of sand, gravel and lime. A heavy roller was on the top layer of the road until an even surface was achieved. This type of road was named after McAdam, so that his name as a master road-builder was immortalised. People everywhere waned his advice, so that he wrote three manuals describing road-building techniques. When his own road-building funds became depleted, he requested the help of the British government. His network of roads still exists today. To that one could add the network of canals for transport by boat and the railroad network for transport by train. All these were developed as a result of the discovery of steam power.

AGRICULTURE
Like McAdam, the farmer Robert Bakewell from Dishley in Leicestershire, was forced by circumstances to improve the quality and quantity of his farm produce. Roberts experiments with sheep, cattle, horses, crops and sprinkler irrigation are set out in the Module.

CONSEQUENCES OF THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION ECONOMIC

The use of machines in factories and industries, improved roads and transport and sufficient improved agricultural products provided large profits. As the demand grew, the manufacturers became increasingly richer. There were, however, disadvantages to this system as well; although the rich grew richer, many of the poor became even poorer. The rich capitalists controlled the raw materials, expensive machinery and markets. All the labourer had to offer in exchange was his labour; and this at the price the owner/employer wanted to pay. Adam Smiths book The Wealth of Nations explained his theories on the economy. He maintained that unlimited individual wealth would be to the advantage of the entire nation and encouraged private initiative. The massive factories of today originated during that time. The developed industrial countries such as the USA, Japan and Britain today play the leading role in world politics.

SOCIAL
Big class differences developed between the labourers and the ruling class. The tranquil rural life of earlier times disappeared completely. Factories were built close to rivers and coalmines. Big cities came into being without pre-planning so that unhygienic conditions developed, leading to disease and famine. Fortunately the inadequate housing received attention. Child labour was the new evil. No education was possible, because children had to work to support the family. Family relationships disintegrated because small children had to work in the coalmines. Working conditions in places such as the factories were shocking and the pay was insufficient. People lost their property and no longer improved their homes. This situation fortunately changed in the twentieth century. Today people in the industrialised countries enjoy prosperity. The Industrial Revolution in these countries was used to everyones advantage, whether rich or poor.

C. ASSESSING KNOWLEDGE AND UNDERSTANDING (LO2)

Upon completion of the module the learners handed in their projects. It is essential that they now write a test in which their knowledge and understanding of the two revolutions are tested. The test must cover at least the contents as summarized for the teacher in this guide.

GRADE 8 MODULE 2
THE MINERAL REVOLUTION AND RELATED WARS SOUTH-AFRICA
IN

In the Grade 8 Module series (Land and Power) learners will become acquainted with the Mineral Revolution. Guard against losing sight of the fact that the Mineral Revolution was a sequel to the French Revolution and the Industrial Revolution. These revolutions and their effects are seen as forces that continued to shift regional boundaries, and thereby the boundaries of political power. This module contains all the facts (minimum content) relevant to syllabus requirements in passages for reading. Please allow time for learners to investigate Internet sources on the Mineral Revolution, or to watch the video recording of Tsjaka Zulu, which is available from the Provincial Library. ...........Activity 1: The facts accompanying the dates below are self-explanatory. Grade 8s have to strive to obtain full information, without having everything presented to them. Asking questions dealing with What? Where? and/or By whom? is a good recipe to follow to gain completeness.

TIME LINE : THE DISCOVERY OF GOLD AND DIAMONDS IN SA OR : EVENTS ON THE SA DIAMOND AND GOLD FIELDS
1852 : J.H. Davis discovers the first gold deposits on a farm near Krugersdorp. 1852 : Britain returns the Transvaal to the Transvalers with the signing of the Sand River Convention. 1854 : British control of the Orange Free State comes to an end with the signing of the Bloemfontein Convention by Britain and the Orange Free State. 1867: The first diamond is discovered near Hopetown. 1868 : Gold is discovered at Tati, north of the Limpopo. 1870 : Diamonds are discovered at Dutoitspan, later known as Kimberley. 1871 : Diamonds discovered at Vooruitzicht, another dry diggings. 1886 : Walker and Harrisons find at Langlaagte becomes known as the main gold reef of the Witwatersrand. 1892 : Johannesburg linked by rail with Cape Town. 1895 : Johannesburg linked by rail with Durban. ...........Activity 2: SOURCE A EN B 1.1 Any example from Source A, e.g. 24 carat gold is pure (100%) gold. 1.2 Source A 1.3 The information is reliable, it has been the subject of research. OR: Dictionaries are reliable sources. 2.1 A primary source 2.2 An advertisement is an original source, just like an eyewitness report.

3.

The ring would not show scratches as easily. The ring is cheaper. /10/

Passage 2 :CLASS DISCUSSION Possible Memo for Class Discussion: 1.1 Employment entails paying a salary. 1.2 Salaries are as important for factory workers as for farm labourers. 2.1 Fashion: Fashion is associated with impractical clothing. Fads, e.g. ostrich feathers on hats (any example), influence production and sales. 2.2 Money is needed before any purchase is possible: for survival as well as luxury goods. (any example of a household article or status product). 3.1 The areas deteriorated into an economic liability; they had to spend money on maintaining the regions. 3.2 The minerals of the Transvaal held a promise of great wealth for their owner. 4 Local markets for provisions like food and clothing deteriorated, while extending mining activities deeper into the earths crust required more and more mineworkers. These workers were paid so poorly that their purchasing power was insufficient for improving the market.

Passage 3 - 4 You will notice that the assessment grid for descriptions from Revision activity 1 of this module is used here for learners to assess one others contributions, or their own efforts. ............Activity 3 (Passage 5): ANSWERS TO CROSSWORD PUZZLE

Gandis passive resistance

2

C h
3

S t
5

G a n d i g

S m u t s

a m b e r l

r e t c h e

A m b

u l a n c e

1 2

M o

e l

d o

a n

l y

r s

............Activity 4 (Passage 6): TIME LINE The dates should be indicated on the line. Below / above the matching events must be described. Learners must provide a heading for the time line.

MEMO : ICU Time line

1919 ............Activity 5 Let learners discuss an article containing information on resistance in their own area, if possible. This exercise is not meant for evaluation by means of an examination, but at personal interpretation of concepts used in connection with RESISTANCE, as well as for the evaluation of different sources. Do reward learners for supplying good material that has general usefulness to everyone in the class, or that you could use in a test on the utilisation of sources. Articles can simply be read for information that allows learners to form their own opinions on resistance. ...........Activity 6: PHOTOGRAPH (PASSAGE 7 AND SOURCE C) 1927 1927
RAILWAY STRIKE

1930
TERMINATION

ESTABLISHED COUNTRY-WIDE BRANCHES

MEMO Activity : Paul Kruger

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. President Paul Kruger Old Zuid-Afrikaansche Republiek (ZAR) Diamonds and gold discovered in the Transvaal. Cecil John Rhodes Europe /1/ to appeal for help for South Africa. Setting fire /1/ to food supplies, farmhouses, etc. Lord Kitchener /1/ /1/ /2/ /1/ /2/ /2/ /1/ /10/

............Activity 7 (PASSAGE 8)

Possible MEMO
1. 2. The women supplied shelter, food and provisions to the Boer commandos. Any example. They, for instance, manufactured their own cartridges. When General French arrived at Kimberley, Cronje was surrounded by Frenchs troops from the outside and attacked from inside by besieged soldiers. Any plan; calling on the Black population for help. Any adventurous plan for sneaking away. A small fort built in a strategic place, so that the guards inside it would be protected. The drawing should show the holes for taking aim and shooting with guns.

3.

............Activity 8 (SOURCE D) Page 14. This activity comprises an exercise in insight and can only be used effectively by learners who are able to grasp the idea of resistance and can work individually. The ability to consider both sides of an issue is an advanced skill. Please approach this activity as you see fit. Do make use of the assessment grid from revision activity 1 or adjust the categories used in it to meet the needs of your class.

............Activity 1 Revision Open answers

........... Activity 2

Revision

MEMO for the explanations of concepts joiners, repatriation, segregation, besiege/occupy, trade union Revision activity 3 3.1 A wheelbarrow 3.2 Primary source It is an original photograph that has not been changed 3.3 It is not material, it is an ordinary wheelbarrow, not an heirloom. 3.4 Opinion 3.5 Anything: people and animals did the work and cocopans were used 3.6 Anything: to transport soil or plants ............... Activity 4 Revision /1/ /1/ /2/ /2/ /1/ /2/ /1/ /10/ /5/

Questions set by learners who have drawn up very good questions can be used for the whole class. Set a good example by respecting the copyright act and obtaining prior permission for using the questions from the learner, and by discussing appropriate remuneration with the learner.

GRADE 8 MODULE 3
Changing Ideas And Technologies: The First World War
MODULE SYNOPSIS

The portfolio has to be finalised during this term, as the fourth term should be used mainly for preparations for the departmental or the school's final examination. The portfolio should include a research project or evidence of the evaluation of such a project, two activities, three term tests (which could comprise source-based testing by means of questions or activities) and an examination. This module is aimed at:

a) providing a second opportunity to undertake the project on the theme of Changing Technologies if the learners have not managed to do the project on the French Revolution (see Module 1) during the first term. Large classes could attempt the poster (see pages 17 and 18 of this module) in groups. b) doing a number of minor activities that could be combined for tests, or could be copied or extracted for the portfolio. Take note of the fact that the activities lend themselves, like those in Module 2, to be utilised, with minor adjustments, as different questions in an examination paper.

STEP BY STEP THROUGH THE MODULE

............Activity 1 SOURCE A: 1. 2. 3. 4. secondary (1) combined (1) from primary sources (1) electricity/water/roads/etc. any two (2) Any essential services OR excess money / unnecessary services (2) 5. Sultan of Turkey (1) the money was not spent to their benefit OR Turkey took the money. Any answer. /2/ =10

SOURCE B: 1. 2.

Bismarck was keen to maintain peace in Europe (1), therefore it was necessary to have peace in the Balkan region. (1) =2 Russia was prevented from expanding its territory. (1) Peace was achieved between Russia and Eastern Hungary. (1) =2 3. The dissatisfaction of the nations in the Balkan region (1) was the direct cause (1) of W.W.1. =2

4. 5.

a) Israeli, b) Prime Minister =2 cause (1) because the problems developed following this (Any relevant answer.) (1) = 2 =10

ASSIGNMENT: See assessment grid in module

............Activity 2 1871 End of the FrancoPrussia n war that humiliat ed France. 1904 France and Britain enter into the Entente Cordiale . 1905 Japan wins the war against Russia, the Duma establis hed. 1906 Confere nce in Algecira s at which Morocco is discuss ed.

Facts for the TIME LINE.

1907 Triple Entente entered into between France, Britain and Russia.

SOURCE C:
1. 2. 3.1 3.2 French, because the army of occupation was French. (2) Roman Catholic Denomination. The Italian missionaries believed this. (2) Any: rules itself OR establishes its own laws OR People enjoy freedom. (2) Disadvantage Any: Without resources it is on its own OR Must have powerful weapons because of being responsible for its own defence. (2) =10

4. Any: The historian is able to trace the exact borders OR research land ownership. (2)

............Activity 3

Research: The theme for this is meaningful self-defence: learners may hold radically different opinions with regard to their answers to questions and concerning their interest in subjects about which they may wish to obtain more information. Encourage them to express their ideas.

Weapons

The exercise in communication could also be undertaken as a class discussion, so that learners could record the best answers provided during the lesson. Afterwards learners should be ready to assess each other's answers. Source D.

NOTE: The simplified assessment grid for learner assessment is provided to focus learners on the most important features that have to be considered for the research project.

............Activity 4 Apply colour to the picture of the national flag. You should be able to obtain a neat example of our national flag from the local municipality. A combined Social Sciences outing could also include a visit to the local police station to look at the national flag.

............Activity 5

SUBMARINES INTERPRETATION
1. 2. 3. 4.

AND

REVISION: FACT/OPINION/PREJUDICE

unrestricted: Something is unrestricted when it is not governed by rules or regulations (1) according to which it could be restricted.(1) =2 Something is used or utilised effectively (1) when it fulfils its intended purpose (1) OR when it is successful/useful (2) =2 No. (1) The Germans were warned means that somebody else warned them. (2) =3 Both groups: The USA saw submarine warfare as cruel and inhuman, (1) Germany was aware of how successful it could be, (1) Was only aware of their own view on the issue. (1) =3

5.1 5.2

opinion (1) extreme and effective (2) fact (1) Any addition of words that change the statement to a prejudiced, emotional opinion, e.g. The clever / intelligent Germans/Germany etc. (1) =5 =15

RESEARCH ASSIGNMENT The assessment grid. You could include a copy of the completed grid in each learner's Module 3 portfolio as proof that the project was completed, or include the learner's research project, if possible. The grid would also serve as proof of intervention in the instance of a learner failing to produce the project. The parent's signature, as well as the date, has to appear on the assessment grid.

............Activity 6

Trenches: Comparison of sources E is a primary source (1) motivation: eye-witness report OR interpretation (1)

Any: Source E a correct definition OR Source F. The illustration, for instance, shows the depth of the trench / Makes it possible to see how many people were involved (3) =5

See instructions for poster / collage in module (Possible class decoration) This poster / collage could also be assessed according to the Assessment grid.

............Activity 7 SOURCE H 1. 2.1 2.2 2.3 3. 4.1 4.2 AIDS An epidemic / disaster (1) on a worldwide scale. (1) =2 Loss of life. Worldwide onslaught. Financial cost. =3 The one is a disease, the other a fight. (2) Continuous / maintained. (1) Women continue to fulfil all their modern roles. =3 (10) ............Activity 8

Memorandum of Discussion of Reading, Passage 9

Please do not allocate marks for the second section of each question if the learners are not able to formulate personal opinions yet. Rather take time to DISCUSS the question in the class to assist them with the formulation of an opinion. Please note that the learner must be able to see the difference between his / her own opinion and that of the educator. 1. 2. Britain, the goldfields /1/ wanted to own/use it. /1/ =2 Own opinion. Colonisation was to Britain's advantage. Kruger was able to put up a good defence /1/ of his country / the Tranvaal /1/ =2 Any: Wilhelm II knew that the Colonialists would rather fight for Germany. OR Wilhelm II wanted to tease Britain; he might have been able to instigate an uprising in the Cape Colony. 3. 4. 5. Britain /1/ They had to execute the instructions of the British government. /1/ =2 Any: Harbours for exporting gold. / Refreshment station. / War products. A nation's /1/ yearning for freedom / independence. 1/ =2 Any: Nationalism is fervent love for the fatherland. The concentration camps /1/ and the war /1/ were fresh in their memory. =2 Any: Anti means against / British signified everything that had to do with Britain. ............Activity 9 ACCEPT THE LEARNERS' EFFORTS

GRADE 8 MODULE 4
COLONISATION
MEMORANDUM
All of the prescribed content has been dealt with in the previous three modules. This module is aimed at continuing with the practicing of skills so as to prepare learners for the type of examination that they will write in Grade 9, i.e. the CTA. This examination, the CTA, actually tests skills, therefore we shall continue to pay attention to revision but we shall also look at the use of sources and other learning outcomes once again. Example: Use the last four or five paragraphs of Reading Passage 5 as an unfamiliar source for setting questions that follow in the CTA style in the question paper. You could also use information from regional history that is familiar to the learner as a source for this type of question.

Step by step through the module

PASSAGE 1
Please make use of the opportunity to develop the learners' empathy with people less privileged than themselves. Prepared to share: bathroom, etc. Any applicable answer: e.g. sleeping place, bedroom, TV,

Not prepared to share: Any personal property: CDs, books, diary, perhaps some person or pet.

PASSAGE 2.
1. 2. 3 4. 5. No. Any: People always need leaders / laws, which signifies a form of managing. OR Their freedom will last until they argue with one another. Any distinction related to being born within a particular class: workers had to use the back entrance of the home. Tobacco can be used for smoking and chewing. It is also used as a fertiliser or for pest control, e.g. for diseases on roses. Furs are the skins of animals /1/. A coat or jacket, cap or handbag /1/made from the skin of an animal /1/ can be made (bought) =3 Indigo is a dye made from plants with the same name. It is used to colour materials such as linen. The colour is a dark blue-violet.

PASSAGE 3 .1 .2 .3 .4 .5 blood bath / slaughter; quartered / confined to barracks; incident; attack; smuggle. /5/

PASSAGE 4

The research assignment is meant as a last attempt to brighten up the portfolio with a colourful piece of work and at the same time inspire the learners to do research on their own and perhaps to involve their parents.

LEESSTUK 5
Please take note that contemporary history changes continually. Therefore ensure that the information in 4(b) and 5(a) is still relevant. Please take note that spelling is not penalised in History. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 1787, 1994 /2/ Each colony or state has its own legislative body that handles local issues /2/ Republic /1/ USA George Washington /1/ SA Nelson Mandela /1/ USA Washington /1/ SA Cape Town, Pretoria and Bloemfontein /3/ USA 52 states /1/ SA 9 provinces /1/ USA The star-spangled Banner /1/ SA Nkosi Sikilel' iAfrika /1/ =15

PASSAGE 6
1. Affirmative Action is the opportunity given to people who were previously excluded from certain rights to once again be able to enjoy the same rights as everyone else. In sport, for example, where people of colour were excluded from national teams, these national teams must be representative of all the people of the country. Please consider the note (covering letter) with regard to the following information:

2.

Any example: In a business workers are appointed according to a quota system, and this means that if 80% of a companys clients are of a particular population group, this must be reflected in the companys workers. This means that 80% of the workers must be from the same group as the clients.

THE LAST TWO ASSIGNMENTS

(If time allows for this)

AMERICAN FLAG:
In the top left corner there are 52 white stars on a blue background in a rectangular shape. The rest of the flag is composed of horizontal stripes, starting at the top with a red stripe and alternating with white stripes. There is a total of thirteen stripes. Give an impression mark out of 10, OR 3 for the correct colours: red, white and blue 4 for the correct shapes, e.g.: stars =1, in a rectangle =1, alternate stripes =2, 3 for labelling: stars represent states =2, original colonies (represented by the stripes) =1.

INSTRUCTIONS:
The aim is to test knowledge of the chronological order. Any subject is acceptable on condition that the learner writes down the chronological order. E.g. a dog being bathed must not be placed in a tub of hot water, as adding of putting in of cold water has been left out. /10/

GRADE 9 MODULE 1
HUMAN RIGHTS
ICSs material for the Learning Area Social Sciences, Focus History Grade 9 consists of the following FOUR modules:
Module 1: Human rights during the second world war Module 2: South Africa from 1948 tot 2000: Nationalism Module 3: The nuclear era and cold war Module 4: Current affairs

This module arrangement is in line with the instructions in the Revised National Curriculum Statement (RNCS). The modules need not necessarily be done in the order indicated above. They were, however, placed in this order for specific reasons, namely: The contents of MODULES 1 and 2 link up well with the First World War focus in Grade 8. MODULES 1,2 and 3 each comprises about one quarter of the work while MODULE 4 is much shorter. If MODULE 4 is therefore done during the fourth term it leaves enough time for the common tasks for assessment (CTA) that must also be done during the fourth term.

STEP BY STEP THROUGH MODULE 1, GRADE 9

ASPECTS OF HUMAN RIGHTS DURING THE SECOND WORLD WAR Step by step through the module
This learning experience on aspects of human rights during the Second World War is divided into various learning activities, all aimed at the prescribed learning outcomes and all shedding light on the following key questions: HUMAN RIGHTS DURING THE SECOND WORLD WAR: KEY QUESTIONS OVERALL KEY QUESTIONS: WHOSE HUMAN RIGHTS WERE VIOLATED DURING THE SECOND WORLD WAR? Learning Activity 1: Where does the violation of human rights still occur today? Learning Activity 2: Characteristics of a dictator? Learning Activity 3: What are the characteristics of a totalitarian state? Learning Activity 4: What was the Germans opinion of the Jews? Learning Activity 5: What was the final solution for the Jews? Learning Activity 6: What can I do to protest against the violation of human rights?

Not all the learning activities need to be assessed. Included in the package are assessment instructions for most of the activities. All these activities refer to the criteria and determine the progress of the learner with regard to the outcomes. It was also ensured that different types of assessment instruments were included. Activity 1 can also be used as initial assessment to determine which skills and knowledge the learner has already acquired. The chapter on the Second World War and Jewish question can be approached by the teacher from various sides and viewpoints. The initial section on the aspects of the war can be treated as follows:
It would be ideal if the teacher / facilitator could link the reasons for the Second World War to the First World War (learning experience for Grade 8) as background or initial assessment. p. 5 6: Learners can use the main points to write a paragraph / essay. p. 6 11: The sections can be regarded as paragraph questions or the learners can be instructed to identify the key word / facts. It must also be emphasized that one cannot really separate the three learning outcomes. Some of the assignments can also be places under another learning outcome. We do, however, recommend that they be integrated. The exercise on Hitler as dictator gives the learners the opportunity to integrate the three learning outcomes by writing a historical essay. We recommend that this learning activity be used for the quarterly assessment. It was compiled in the form of an outcome-based test. The exercise on the Jewish question can be used for the term assessment. All three learning outcomes are covered. The columns are also included. Also use the assignment and column on the learning outcome integration.

ASSESSMENT

Not all learning activities need be recorded. Provision has been made for three activities where the overall code of the instrument (e.g. column) will be used. Some of the activities also correspond with the requirements of the Grade 9 portfolio. The 2002 instructions for the portfolio and the way in which the learning activities in this module correspond with them are as follows: ACTIVITIES NUMBER 2 (Activity 2) 2 (Activity 1 & 5) 1 (Activity 6) 1 (Activity 4)

Test / examinations Source-based work Creative response Research work

Provision has also been made for conversion of a test mark to a percentage. In this way the requirements for the Grade 9 portfolio contents can be met. Lets look at the example of a record sheet below. The percentages 68,70,70,50,and 60 give an average for the year or 64%, which is a code 3 according to the national record scale. You can decide for yourself whether you want to give the examination a heavier weight. Remember that exams must be outcomes-based and must not merely be a testing of facts.

RECORD SHEET: MODULE 1 (HUMAN RIGHTS IN SECOND WORLD WAR)

Subject A Human rights in WW2 Outcomes Outcomes Outcomes Subject B JUNE Subject C September Final DASS mark

All Name 4 4 4 % 4 4 4 % % OK 4 (4) 3 3 4 4 % % OK (4) 3

Transfer to Dept record sheets. Choose activities for portfolio requirements here.

Code (1-4)

Nel, J

68

70 70

50

60

64

MINIMUM CONTENTS FOR MODULE 1

ASPECTS OF THE SECOND WORLD WAR

B e n it o

u s s o lin i

A d o lf H it le r

THE RISE OF TOTALITARIANISM 1919-1933

1. Democratic countries; political problems; economic problems: After the First World War the democratic countries concentrated only on solving political problems while economic problems received no attention. 2. Global depression; global trade; lack of money; unemployment: The global depression (1929-1933) caused a drop in global trade, together with a lack of money and unemployment.

3. Have-nots: Japan, Germany and Italy called themselves the have-nots because they had lost almost everything as a result of the Treaty of Versailles. 4. 5. 6. 7. Nationalism: A new spirit of nationalism in these countries. 1933; National-Socialist Party; Adolf Hitler: In 1933 the National-Socialist Party under Adolf Hitler came into power in Germany. Master race: Hitler regarded the German people as a master race. Living conditions; unemployment; trade and industry: Hitler improved living conditions in Germany by lowering unemployment and improving trade and industry. 8. 9. National pride: Hitler strengthened the national pride of the German nation. Shackles of Versailles: Hitler wanted to free the German nation of the shackles of Versailles (referring to the unfair terms). 10. Living-space, one nation, one state, one leader. Hitler wanted to find additional living-space in Eastern Europe and coined the phrase one nation, one state, one leader. 11. Military leaders; divine calling: The military leaders in Japan regarded it as their divine calling to rule the other nations in Asia. 12. Mussolini; old Roman Empire: In Italy Mussulini promised the Italian nation a resurrection of the Roman Empire (glory, fame). 13. Fascist Party: Mussolini founded the Fascist Party to realise his ideals. 14. 1936; Anti-Commenter Treaty; Axis Powers: In 1936 Germany and Italy, and shortly afterward also Japan, signed the Anti-Comintern Treaty. They were also known as the Axis Powers.

Nazi, Nurenberg

Hitler Mussolini

AGGRESSIVE ACTION AND TERRITORIAL EXPANSION OF GERMANY 1933 1936

In 1933 Hitler withdrew from the League of Nations, because the other nations would not disarm like Germany. They also would not allow Germany to rearm. In a national referendum 95% of the German people approved this step. Hitler started an intensive rearmament plan and instituted compulsory military service. He built up the German army into a powerful war machine. In 1935 a national referendum was held in the Saar region. More than 90% of the inhabitants voted in favour of joining Germany. By 1930 the last foreign troops (Allies) were withdrawn from the Rhineland. In 1936 Hitler occupied the Rhineland with 90 000 troops. Hitler set up a defence line, the Siegfried line, along the Rhine. The French replied by setting up the Maginot line. These lines cut France off from its allies in Eastern Europe, e.g. Russia.

THE ITALIAN OCCUPATION OF ABYSSINIA (ETHIOPIA)

Mussolini improved conditions in Italy by building railway lines, promoting trade and placing agriculture on a healthy footing. This reduced unemployment and got Mussolini the co-operation of all the workers. Italy wanted to extend its powers along the Adriatic coast but this was in conflict with French interests. In order to obtain essential raw materials and markets, Italy focused on colonial expansion. In 1935 Italian troops occupied Abyssinia. Out of fear of Hitler, Britain and France did not intercede. The League of Nations accused Italy of being the aggressor and applied sanctions against it. With Germanys moral support Italy succeeded in conquering Abyssinia. In 1937 Italy withdrew from the League of Nations and approached Germany, and these two countries became closer allies. Germany was the first country to recognize Italys occupation of Abyssinia. The first joint operation of these two countries was to send troops to Spain to help General Franco come into power.

Mussolini

Italian soldiers in Abyssinia

Mussolini (left) and General Franco of Spain (right)

JAPANESE EXPANSION IN THE FAR EAST

Japan regarded Communism as a great danger to its survival. The country wanted to expand its power over the surrounding areas in order to gain more living-space for its overpopulated country. Japan came into possession of Shantung and rented the railway of Southern Manchuria from China for 99 years. After the Great Depression of the 30s Japan was seeking cheap raw materials and outlets for its factories. The strong war party that came into power conquered Manchuria, which previously belonged to China. Owing to conflict with the League of Nations, Japan left this organisation in 1933. Germany, Italy and Japan signed the Anti-Commenter Treaty in 1936 and formed the Axis Powers. By 1938 Japan was in possession of the most important ports and railways in Northern China. Japan now became a threat to the interests of Britain, the USA and Russia in the Far East.

Chinese soldiers preparing for the Japanese

Japanese soldiers in China

Japanese soldier with machine gun

Emperor Hirohito

THE GERMAN ANNEXATION OF AUSTRIA

By 1937 Hitler was poised to annex surrounding areas for Germany. Italy (because of RomeBerlin axis) and Japan (because of Anti-Commenter Treaty) were its allies. Branches of the German Nazi Party were formed everywhere. Britain adopted a conciliatory attitude towards Germany, while France could not make war against Germany on its own. Austria became the first target of Hitlers expansion plans. In 1938 the Austrian chancellor (Schuschnigg) was invited to visit Hitler. Hitler gave him a choice: Austria could be peacefully incorporated into Germany or the German army could annex Austria. Schuschnigg opted for incorporation. Back in Vienna, Schuschnigg decided to have a referendum on the matter. On the day before the referendum, however, the German army marched into Austria. In March 1938 Austria became part of Germany. 99% of the Austrian people were in favour of uniting with Germany. The British government made no objection. This had a positive effect on Hitlers prestige in Germany.

THE GERMAN ANNEXATION OF CZECHOSLOVAKIA (Sudetenland, Bohemia, Moravia)

Hitler wanted all Germans outside the borders of Germany to have the right to self-determination. Of the 14 million inhabitants of Czechoslovakia 3,5 million were Germans. They lived mainly in Sudetenland (industrial area). The Germans and Czechs in Sudetenland were not on a friendly footing. Hitler established Nazi branches in Sudetenland and encouraged the inhabitants to insist on the right to self-determination. Martial law was declared in Czechoslovakia and Germany was warned not to interfere. Hitler promised that the Sudeten Germans would be freed, even through it might mean war.

Hitler receiving Chamberlain

Hitler in Munchen

During a conference between Hitler, Mussolini (Italy), Chamberlain (Britain) and Deadlier (France) in Munchen in September 1938, Hitler demanded the annexation of Sudetenland. His demands were met and Czechoslovakia had to accept it. In October 1938 Sudetenland was incorporated into Germany. Chamberlain and the other leaders believed that peace was now ensured. Hitler and Mussolini had achieved a moral victory. Bohemia and Moravia still had to be incorporated. Propagandists stirred up the feeling of nationalism among the German inhabitants. President Hacha was summoned to Berlin and threatened that he had to sign a request in which German help was requested against the Czechs. If he refused, Prague (capital) would be attacked. On 16 March 1939 Bohemia and Moravia were declared German protectorates. British and French objections fell on deaf ears. Germany also came into possession of the Skoda arms factory.

OUTBREAK OF THE WAR AND GROUPING OF THE WORLD POWERS THE CRISIS MONTHS BEFORE THE WAR GERMAN DEMANDS TO POLAND
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Poland; Germany; united Germany suggested that Poland and Germany should unite against their enemy Russia. France; Britain; Russia; defence agreement France; Britain and Russia promised to help Poland concluded a defence agreement. Germany; Italy; Alliance of Steel Germany and Italy concluded the Alliance of Steel in 1939. Non-aggression pact In 1939 Germany and Russia concluded a non-aggression pact. Poland; invaded On 1 September 1939 Germany invaded Poland. France; Britain On 3 September 1939 France and Britain declared war against Germany.

SUMMARISED COURSE OF THE WAR IN EUROPE AND THE FAR EAST

7. The two groups fighting each other: Axis powers Germany Italy Bulgaria Romania Finland Japan Allies Britain France Poland USA Russia Commonwealth

8. 9.

Dunkirk: The allies suffered a major defeat at Dunkirk in 1940. Cash and carry USA sold arms on a cash-and-carry basis. Buy arms and fetch them yourself.

10. Roosevelt Roosevelt was re-elected as president of the USA in 1940. 11. Atlantic Charter In 1941 Roosevelt and Churchill signed the Atlantic Charter. 12. Pearl Harbour On 7 December 1941 Japan attacked Pearl Harbour. 13. USA; war; Japan On 8 December 1941 USA declared war against Japan. 14. German army; surrendered On 7 May 1945 the German armed forces surrendered unconditionally.

USA aeroplanes; Pacific Ocean 1945

Nagasaki 1945

15. 6 and 9 August 1945; atom bombs; Hiroshima; Nagasaki: On 6 and 9 August 1945 two atom bombs were dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki.

Yalta, 1945, Churchill, Roosevelt and Stalin 16. February 1945 Yalta: Churchill, Roosevelt and Stalin met at Yalta in February 1945 already. 17. Germany; four zones: They agreed that Germany would be divided into 4 zones after the war.

THE NAZIS AND THE JEWISH QUESTION

After he had risen to power in Germany in 1933 Hitler started to carry out his policy of racial superiority. This meant that one race regarded itself as better than and superior to another race. To Hitler the Slavic nations of Eastern Europe and especially the Jews were Untermenschen (inferior).

Steps against the Jews:

In April 1933 already all Jews were dismissed from the government services. Jewish doctors and attorneys practices were closed. In September 1933 the Nuremberg Laws were issued. These laws were supposed to protect the Germans against mixing of races and humiliation. Below are some of these laws: 1. Marriages between Jews and persons of pure German blood were declared null and void. Non-marital relationships between Jews and persons of pure German blood were also prohibited. Jews were not allowed to use people of pure German descent as domestic help. Jews were not allowed to display German symbols such as the flag, or sing the national anthem.

RACISM:
This is a policy in accordance with which one race regards itself as superior to another race. It may be based on skin colour, physical appearance, economic stratification and political power. After the First World War various forms of racism occurred in Europe. There was an anti-Slavic sentiment that included Russia and Poland.

2.

3. 4.

Jews were now excluded from the economy. The culmination of the Jewish persecution in Germany was Kristallnacht (night of broken glass) when many Jews were murdered and synagogues were burnt down or damaged. An American consul in Leipzig described it as follows: The sadistic party supporters threw trembling Jews into a narrow stream running through the zoo. Germans and onlookers were forced to spit on them and throw mud at them. Any sympathy from the bystanders was regarded as unpatriotic by the party supporters and onlookers could only leave the scene in horror.

Fate of Jews in the occupied territories:

Three weeks after the occupation of Poland in 1939 the Poles also understood what Hitler meant by Untermenschen. They used 300 000 Poles as slave labourers for the Germans. Jews were also tracked down in the Netherlands, Belgium and France and sent to concentration camps. After June 1941 the Germans also killed millions of Russians. Outside the towns, Einsatzgruppen or special units shot anyone who did not serve a purpose in the German war effort. In January Nazi leaders attended the Wannsee Conference. Jews were to be sent to the east where they would be systematically killed by starvation and overwork. This led to the establishment of extermination camps all over Poland. CAMPS IN POLAND Treblinka Sobibor Majdanek Belzec Auschwitz In the best-known camp, Auschwitz, sick and old people, woman and children were killed in gas chambers by means of the poisonous gas, Zyklon-B. Up to 2 000 people at a time were killed in these gas chambers. Jews were used to remove the bodies, which were then cremated. Millions died in this way. Not only Jews were murdered by the Nazis. Approximately 4 million Russian prisoners of war also died and on their retreat from Russia the inhabitants of 700 towns were burnt alive by Germans.

Jewish woman fleeing in Eastern Europe

GRADE 9 MODULE 2
SOUTH AFRICA FROM

1948

TO

2000:

NATIONALISM

Nationalism and Identity in South Africa: How is Identity established? Afrikaner and African nationalism
We have to take a look at the origins of the words nationalism and identity to gain understanding of the effect of these concepts on the history of South Africa, particularly during the period from 1948 to the present. The Collins English dictionary describes nationalism as:

A sentiment based on common cultural characteristics that binds a population and often produces a policy of national independence or separatism
and identity as:

The state of having unique identifying characteristics by which a person or thing is recognized

WHERE

DID NATIONALISM ORIGINATE?

There was a time in history when there was no such thing as nationalism. Early peoples did not feel that they belonged to cities or to tribes. In the Middle Ages, for instance, people were loyal to their rulers, like the French king or the Roman Caesar and so on. Modern nationalism only began to be an important factor when international relations became important. Peoples desire to define and redefine their countrys boundaries resulted in a need to redraw the map of Europe several times during the 1800s. Nationalism has also brought about changes in the map of Africa since the 1940s. But nationalism began with the development of a political unit known as the nation state.

A NATION is a group of people who share a common culture, history and language and have therefore developed a feeling of national unity. A STATE is a region in which the inhabitants have an independent government. THERE
ARE DIFFERENT KINDS OF NATIONALISM

The political leaders of states are able to harness nationalism for their own benefit or to support their own ideologies. Nationalism has resulted in the following: Competition and tension between nations. Wars. Extreme forms of nationalism that lead to racial hatred and the persecution of minority groups.

A good example of this is found in Hitlers so-called integral nationalism, which propagated the idea that some nations were superior to all others Jews and other groups who were thought to be inferior, were eradicated by the Nazis. More recent examples are found in the wars in Macedonia and Kosovo. Nationalism has also resulted in the unification of both Italy and Germany, and of the Americans who believed that they had a clear calling to take over the whole of North America. It has also resulted in the disintegration of a number of eastern European countries during the 1990s, e.g. Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia.

NATIONALISM

IN

AFRICA

African nationalism has existed for a long time, but this feeling was strengthened when Black South Africans fought together with their colonial rulers during the Second World War, but afterwards realised that things they had been fighting against, such as racism, still existed in their own country. After the war, the African colonies insisted on being granted their right to self-determination by their European rulers. Sometimes this happened peacefully, but at other times it was accompanied by violence. Egypt was the first country to be granted independence by Britain in 1922, with Kenya and Malawi achieving independence from Britain in 1963 and 1964 respectively.

FINALLY
Nationalism provides people with a sense of belonging, pride in and willingness to make sacrifices for their country. They also develop greater interest in their nations achievements in the fields of literature, sport and music. National symbols like the flag, an anthem, etc. become very important.

National symbols are emotional symbols Nelson Mandela, Pretoria, May 1994

Afrikaner Nationalism
This can be traced back to the Great Trek, the 1838 migration into the interior of Southern Africa. The Dutch speakers decided to leave the Eastern Cape because of British suppression. They wanted to find a new homeland where they could practise freedom of expression, their own language and method of government. Britain acknowledged the independence of the Boer Republics, i.e. the South African Republic and the Orange Free State, in 1852 and 1854. The white settlers were then able to choose their own government and president, and use their own flag and other national symbols. The discovery of gold and diamonds in these Boer republics endangered their independence, as Britain wanted to regain these regions. This led to two wars of liberation, the First being the Transvaal War and the Second, the South African War, which is better known as the Anglo-Boer War. It was a war in which South Africans had to defend their independence against British imperialism and domination. British imperialists/capitalists initially dominated the mining industry and therefore gave preference to English persons in the employment of skilled workers. The defeat of the Afrikaners in the Anglo-Boer War resulted in bitter hatred between the Afrikaners and the British. The aim of Afrikaner nationalism was to keep political and economic power in the hands of the white governing class.

South Africa achieved a measure of independence with the unification of 1910, but the Union remained a British dominion with British national symbols. Even the constitution was based on the British Westminster system. Afrikaner nationalists wanted a republic and to be independent of the British monarch. The struggle therefore continued until the Union achieved sovereign independence in 1934. Afrikaner nationalism was inspired by the following:

The commemoration of the Trek in 1939; Founding of cultural organisations; Acquiring a national flag and a national anthem; and The appointment to managerial positions in government service and in mining.
Liberation from British domination The Afrikaner has been and will continue to be a minority group. Could this have been the reason behind Apartheid policy, which was instituted by the National Party government after its victory in the 1948 election? Did British domination and the absence of an own identity contribute to the Apartheid policy? Could it be that fear of majority rule (by Blacks) resulted in Apartheid legislation, to safeguard the Afrikaner nation, its symbols and identity?

Africans/Blacks and Nationalism

Many Africans regard the 19th century as a time of bitter warfare during which their land was taken from them and the traditional community structures fell apart in many places. Africans also wanted to have a say in how the country was governed, but the Peace of Vereeniging that was signed in 1902 by British and Afrikaner leaders made no provision for black representation in parliament. When the Union of South Africa came into existence on 31 May 1910, Africans remained disenfranchised. Only in the Cape Province Coloureds and some qualifying Africans were retained on the communal voters roll. African leaders realised that some positive action had to be taken. A small, select group of Africans who had been educated in the traditions of the West, and had expected to be part of the new colonial state, founded the South African Natives National Congress (SANNC) in Bloemfontein. They believed that the British and white South African government would attend to their reasonable requests for the unfair laws to be changed. The SANNC did not support violence. The first secretary-general of the organisation was the writer and politician Sol Plaatjie, who was an active campaigner against the native Land Act that was promulgated by the government of Louis Botha in 1913.

THE NATIVE LAND ACT: 1913 This law limited African land-ownership (in the reserves) to a small portion (7%) of the total surface area of South Africa. African squatters and landowners were thereby removed from their ground in the Transvaal and the Orange Free State. The Cape Province was not affected by this because of its franchise policy. The effect of the legislation was to effectively divide South Africa into exclusively African and white areas. In 1936 an additional Native Land Act extended the area of the reserves to 13% of the land surface.

THE NATIVE URBAN AREAS ACT: 1923 This law reinforced the pass system, which controlled Africans who were looking for employment and accommodation in cities. It made it impossible for African people to own land in the cities. It created separate areas in cities where Africans were allowed to live.
The SAANC was renamed the African National Congress (ANC) in 1923. During the 1920s, strikes were organised in cities and on farms by movements like the Industrial and Commercial Workers Union (ICU). Passes were burnt and protests were held. The ANC retained their attitude of passive resistance, in spite of the violence that erupted. The National Party introduced apartheid policies after the 1948 election. Laws that were promulgated raised communal use of beaches, trains and post offices by different races to the level of a criminal offence. During the 1940s, the awareness of the need for a change in leadership that would enable the ANC to continue to play a role in the future struggle grew among the ranks of the movement. The Congress Youth League (the Young Lions) was founded in 1943 and the election of Dr Alfred Zuma as ANC president opened the way for gradual transformation. Walter Sisulu and Nelson Mandela were prominent members of the Young Lions. Anton Lembede took the lead and gave new stature to the development of radical African nationalism. In 1949 Maroka took over the leadership of the CYL. Then, in the 1950s, the ANC began to support a programme of military resistance. The slogan of the CYL was Freedom in our Lifetime. African nationalism is based on two ideologies, namely:

The CHARTER PARTY, which included the Congress movement (ANC, SAIC, SACP) stating that South Africa belonged to all its inhabitants and everyone was therefore equal. The AFRICAN included the Pan African Congress, and later also movements like AZAPO and SASO. This grouping asserted that South Africa belonged to the Africans and that people of European origin should have no say in the government of South Africa.
The African was able to find an own identity within the ANC and the Defiance Campaign and the Black Consciousness Movement united Africans in their opposition to apartheid. African nationalism was strengthened during the seventies. This led to the Soweto crisis of 16 June 1976. In the eighties, the National government recalled the pass laws and the Mixed Marriages Act. Nelson Mandela was released from jail in 1994, while FW de Klerk was State President. This further strengthened African nationalism to the extent that it eventually attained victory.

Apartheid and Resistance

WHAT
IS APARTHEID?

Literally, it signifies being apart. It is an official policy of racial separation based on skin colour.

WHO

INSTITUTED APARTHEID?

The groundwork for apartheid policy was laid by the segregation policy that was followed by Hertzog and Smuts in the period between 1924 and 1947. Dr Malans National Party won the general election in 1948 and a government of Afrikaner nationalists took over the control of the country. They had three objectives:

To retain governing power in the hands of the Afrikaner; To break all links with Britain and establish South Africa as a republic; To institute a strict policy of segregation known as apartheid and thereby to ensure that the various races would be kept apart and that the whites would remain in control.

HOW

WAS APARTHEID IMPLEMENTED?

It was implemented by means of a number of laws that were to legalise apartheid policy. The apartheid laws comprised the following:

1949 1950 1950 1953 1950 1951 1953 1953 1952 1954 1955 1963 1956 1959 1956 1960 1963

Law on the Prohibition of Mixed Marriages Population Registration Act Group Areas Act Law on the Allocation of Separate Amenities The Immorality Act Bantu Authorities Act Bantu Education Act Law on the Resolution of Native Disputes Native Act (Abolition of Passes and the Coordination of Documents) Act on the Resettlement of Natives Amendment Bill on Native Urban Areas The Indian Education Act Extension of Passes to Women Act on the Extension of University Training Act on Separate Representation of Voters The Broadcasting Amendment Act Coloured Education Act

Passive resistance in the Fifties

THE
WAY OF LIVING:

SOPHIATOWN

The Sopiatown story began in 1897 when a man by the name of Herman Tobiansky bought 237 hectare of land 7 kilometres west of Johannesburg and named it after his wife. Sewerage works in the vicinity put whites off from buying plots. When the Western Native Township was established nearby after the Second World War, Tobiansky decided to offer plots for sale to Africans, which led to the birth of Sophiatown. Everything proceeded normally Africans did not need permission to settle here. Somebody merely bought a house and moved into it. Several bohemian whites also settled in the suburb and everyone lived side-by-side in a creative community of journalists, musicians, writers and politicians.

JAZZ
Black American music started to become popular in South African cities, especially in Johannesburg. Some of the well-known jazz groups of the time were the Boston Stars, the Manhattan Brothers and the Pitch Black Follies. American blacks that were involved in the difficult transition from the rural to the urban environment adapted the traditional rhythms from Africa that they had taken along with them in the slave ships first to blues and then to jazz. Africans soon realised that the talent for making music was an area in which many under-privileged American blacks managed to gain some recognition and respect. Nowhere was the desire to make music as strong as in Sophiatown. Property rights and the ambitions of the society led the way to an African urban lifestyle. In shebeens like Aunt Babes, The House on Telegraph Hill and The Back of the Moon clients could listen to the latest jazz recordings from the USA, as well as to the local musicians who were mimicking this music. Urbanized Africans attentively watched the black singer Lena Horne in films like Stormy Weather and Black Velvet. The Second World War brought advancement for African musicians because the best jazz bands were used by the army to entertain the troops and African talent was thereby introduced to white audiences. Indigenous African music rocked the world and kwla became an internationally recognized sound. Regular jazz sessions were held in the Odin Theatre in Sophiatown. In 1959, the African Music and Drama Association produced the very successful musical King Kong with Miriam Makeba in the main role. This play made a dramatic statement about life in an African township and fascinated audiences in South Africa and overseas. Another star of this production was the 10-year-old Lemmy Manaso, who captivated people with his sparkling kwla solos and his pennywhistle. Government bulldozers bore down on Sophiatown. Of this, Father Trevor Huddlestone, the local Anglican priest, said, South Africa not only lost a place, but an ideal. After a number of unsuccessful attempts, music did make a comeback in the Soweto Township. But the musicians of the time of Separate Amenities and Group Areas laws, like Miriam Makeba and Dudu Pukwana, decided to pursue their careers overseas.

THE ALEXANDRA TOWNSHIP

Alexandra was a black suburb 15 km north of Johannesburg where property rights were in force. A small group of homeless and desperate squatters under the leadership of Schreiner Baduza initially tried to settle at Lombardy East, near Alexandra. The police destroyed the huts and took Baduza into custody. But drought and over-population in the reserves had forced thousands of Africans to move to the cities by 1939. They did not find the better life that they had hoped for because conditions in the urban slums were no better than in the rural areas. In many instances, living in these urban ghettos was very stressful and as humiliating as living in the reserves. The situation was marked by the hopeless misery of drunkenness and disease, with a childhood death rate ten times that of white children. But a proud spirit of survival, which the Africans referred to as Marabi, arose from it. The hopeless situation also fed a spirit of resistance and contributed to the increased militancy of the political organisations of the African middle class. Although the powerful feeling of solidarity that their conditions forced on them was sometimes overwhelmed by the reality of the urban ghettos, it did from time to time push the African working class communities to undertake political campaigns to protect their insecure interests. In 1944, thousands of the inhabitants of this African township organised a bus boycott that lasted for seven weeks. Almost completely surrounded by white suburbs, the township remained a black spot in the governments resettlement programme. But it was deteriorating and became a slum where there was no running water, sewerage or electricity and roads were full of potholes.

Resistance
The ANC Youth League suggested a plan of action in the 1940s. An Alliance between the ANC and the South African Indian Congress was formed with the support of the Communist Party. The Communist Party staged a successful stay-away campaign in Johannesburg on 1 May 1950. During this protest, 18 protesters were killed in police action. The ANC called for a National day of Protest and Mourning on 26 June 1950. The Government promulgated the Act on the Suppression of Communism. A Joint Planning Council of the Franchise Action Committee composed of the ANC, the SA Indian Congress and the Franchise Action Committee was founded in 1951. The 1952 Resistance Campaign, which was aimed at five unjust laws and comprised a programme of general protest, strikes and civil disobedience actions during which laws were deliberately broken as part of a political campaign, was organised.

The Act on the Restriction of Livestock Bantu Authorities Act Group Areas Act Act on Separate Representation of Voters

Act on the Suppression of Communism

Following the Resistance Campaign, links between the ANC and the SA Indian Congress were strengthened through the Congress Alliance. The Congress Alliance compiled the Freedom Charter with the help of the opinions of ordinary South Africans from all over the country. On 26 June 1955, the Congress of the People was held at Kliptown and the Freedom Charter was presented to the people.

Women against apartheid

Lilian Ngoyi joined the ANC when she saw how young boys were sent to jail during the Resistance Campaign in 1952. She became President of the ANC Womens League (ANCWL). She was also one of the leaders of the womens protest march to the Union Buildings in 1955 and was elected to the position of president of the non-racial Federation of South African Women (Fedsaw). In 1956, she was among the 20 women who were arrested and accused in the noted Treason Trial. The National Party extended the pass laws to include women in 1952. Some aspects of the law that affected women were only applied from 1955. Then all African women also had to be registered and carry passes. The passes meant that women could only live and work in particular areas. They were also prohibited from taking their children with them to the urban areas where they worked. Fedsaw and the ANCWL therefore organised a march for 9 August 1956 in which 20 000 women from right across the country were to walk to the government offices at the Union Buildings in Pretoria. When they arrived in Pretoria they were informed that the march had been prohibited. So they formed small groups and walked to the Union Buildings in that unprovocative way. A deputation of women led by Lilian Ngoyi wanted to hand over an anti-pass law petition to Prime Minister JG Strijdom, but he refused to speak to them. They then placed a large pile of petitions at his door while singing:

Strijdom, Wathinta abafazi, wathint imbokodo! (Strijdom, when you strike a woman, you strike a rock!)
By the end of the sixties, the government had managed to make African women carry passes, but mass meetings have been held by South African women on 9 August ever since to commemorate the womens march to Pretoria.

After 1994, 9 August was declared a public holiday that is known as NATIONAL WOMEN'S DAY.
In December 1956, 159 Congress leaders were arrested on a charge of high treason for having desired to overthrow the government. The hearings lasted between three and four years and the leaders were found not guilty. Women from Mkhumbane (Cato Manor) near Durban protested angrily against police raids on their shebeens and against their removal to the new residential area of KwaMashu. This resulted in a riot and uprisings in the rural areas followed, e.g. at Zeerust and in Pondoland. The South African Congress of Trade Unions (SACTU) was founded in 1955.

Forced Removals, Homelands and Control over Labour: communal experiences and the effect on the lives of South Africans
As Minister of Native Affairs, Hendrik Verwoerd was responsible for the removal of 80 000 Africans from Sophiatown, Marindale and Newclare and their relocation in the recently founded Southwestern Township of Johannesburg (Soweto). The Group Areas Act made it possible to move African people and people of other races out of the newly-declared so-called white areas. The inhabitants of Sophiatown founded the Western Areas Protest Committee and planned a one-day strike for 12 February 1955. This was the date set for removals, but the government sent in the police, armed with machine guns and other arms, as well as knobkieries earlier, on 19 February, and the first 10 families were forcibly removed to Meadowlands, now part of Soweto. The inhabitants were classified African, Coloured, Indian or White according to the Population Registration Act and this determined where they were sent. Nowadays this area, which once reverberated with the pulsating rhythms of Africa, is a neat suburb with modern houses and well-tended gardens, known as Triomf.

DISTRICT SIX
Africans began moving into the Cape Peninsula from the beginning of the twentieth century. They chose to go to Cape Town because working conditions and wages were better in that part of the country. Housing, however, posed a problem. Very few whites were willing to rent out houses or rooms to Africans, except in the most run-down areas of District Six. The name District Six originated in 1867 when this area was the last one of six districts created under the Municipal Council Amendment Act. It soon became known as a crimedriven slum that attracted drunken sailors and the women who earned their living from them. When bubonic plague broke out in 1901, the police were called in to force the residents to leave the area and they went to live in an emergency camp (where Pinelands is nowadays), but most of them afterwards returned to the area. Although crime was rife, a strong sense of community also existed in the narrow lanes and streets of this picturesque suburb. The main road, Hanover Street, was a colourful market by day and a dangerous shadowy world of criminals and rough characters by night. Under the Group Areas Act of 1966, District Six was declared a white area and one house after the other was razed to the ground in the fifteen years that followed. This virtually smothered the soul of the city, as inhabitants were removed to new residential areas on the Cape Flats. The present Zonnebloem hides an ugly chapter of apartheid history, the demolition of a community of 55 000 people. Streets that used to ring with the laughter of children and the sound of the fish-horn have been stilled. As the one-time soul of the city of Cape Town, District Six has been celebrated in books, poetry and photographs and even in a record-breaking musical.

Homelands
The Act on the Promotion of Bantu Self-governance of 1958 created eight Bantu Homelands. This determined that each black person in South Africa would become an inhabitant of one of these homelands, each of which was to have its own government. This meant that there would no longer be any black South African citizens. Ten homelands were created within the borders of South Africa:

Bophuthatswana The Ciskei Gazankulu KaNgwane KwaNdebele KwaZulu Lebowa QuaQua TheTranskei Venda
During the Sixties and Seventies, 1 820 000 Africans were removed from their homes and told to leave the urban areas. Another 600 000 Coloureds, Indians and Chinese and almost 40 000 whites also had to move in terms of the Group Areas Act. Racial domination was not the only reason for these forced removals. There was a fear of black competition with regard to farming in the white agricultural areas, as well as a need for farm labourers. Surplus Africans had to be moved to the reserves. During the Sixties, more than one million people were moved from the so-called black spots in the rural areas, from land that belonged to Africans and was inhabited by Africans, but was surrounded by white properties.

A second type of removal was that of the families of labourers who lived in townships that adjoined homelands. In this way families were moved into the homelands, even if it meant that the whole township had to be relocated. This was also accomplished by re-establishing boundaries of particular homelands. In a third type of removal, people were moved out of old urban locations and relocated in resettlement camps on the borders of homelands. The fourth type of relocation that was applicable in the Western Cape declared this region a Coloured Labour Preference area. This meant that the government had power to move Africans to what they regarded as their traditional homelands to provide more work for coloured people.
IN THE HOMELANDS:

CONDITIONS

The soil of some of the undeveloped homelands was infertile and there were no Industries. People were therefore unable to make a living from farming and jobs were scarce. Many people were living in abject poverty. Matters were made worse by the actions of corrupt politicians who did not supply adequate services and often embezzled money.

Economically, all the homelands were completely dependent on South Africa. The South African government exploited the conditions and ensured that the apartheid plans were executed with the help of corrupt homeland leaders. These homeland leaders maintained power by means of strong armies.

Although the homelands were too small and too dry to support even half of the black population, they were allowed a measure of independence to prove to foreign countries that separate development could be successfully driven.

The homelands were totally dependent on South Africa for financial assistance. Most of the money allocated to the homelands was used to build residential areas in the dry and over-populated countryside where the large numbers of people who were forced out of white South Africa would be settled. Border industries were established so that African labourers would be able to commute across the border daily. These border industries could not supply enough work to solve the problem of unemployment. The forced removals to the homelands had serious repercussions for the way in which Africans lived. Africans who had practised cattle farming in white areas for generations had to sell their cattle when their presence in these areas was prohibited. Many of them had to go and live in the resettlement camps that were erected to house Africans whose lands had been expropriated until they could move to the designated homeland. These camps were situated in remote areas hundreds of kilometres from the nearest town. The shortage of running water, fertile soil and suitable housing resulted in disease and malnutrition. Naturally, many women soon began to leave the homelands illegally to join their husbands who were working in white areas. People who lived in squatter camps usually had no warning of imminent removal, except for the rumble of the bulldozers and the barking of dogs. Daybreak used to be the chosen time for evacuation, no matter what the weather conditions were.

The Armed Struggle and State Repression of the Sixties

In the Sixties Africans came to realise that non-violent efforts to end apartheid had failed and that new strategies had to be developed. This was clearly illustrated by the SHARPEVILLE INCIDENT. Both the ANC and the PAC decided to organise campaigns against the pass laws in 1960. These campaigns clearly revealed the competition between the ANC and the PAC. The ANC campaign was planned for 31 March 1960, that of the PAC for 21 March.

The PAC comprised a group that broke away from the ANC in 1959 because of their dissatisfaction with ANC policy. They felt that Africans were the most important players in the anti-apartheid struggle and had to continue the struggle without entering into agreements with other races.

The ANC believed in entering into agreements with other racial groups, and therefore supported a multi-racial alliance for the purpose of fighting for political rights.
Harold MacMillan, the British Prime Minister, delivered his famous speech on the winds of change in the South African Parliament and warned that the winds of African nationalism were blowing everywhere in Africa.

Sharpeville
PAC supporters were told to meet at the Sharpeville police station (near Vereeniging) on 2 March. They were to leave their passbooks at home and demand to be arrested. The expectation was that the resultant over-crowding of already crowded jails would create an impossible situation and the government would be obliged to recall the pass laws. The protests ran according to plan at Orlando in Soweto, but Robert Sobukwe, the PAC leader, was taken into custody. Other protest marches took place from Bohelong and Boipatong to the Vanderbijl Park police station. Thousands of people surrounded the police station at Sharpeville. Police reinforcements arrived and a struggle occurred outside the fence surrounding the police station. Part of the fence was pushed over and a police officer was knocked down. The inquisitive onlookers at the back forced the crowd of protesters forwards and the police panicked and opened fire on the crowd. Those who were in front turned round to try to escape, but could not make their way through those who were surging from behind. Later it was found that most of the victims had been shot in the back. Sixty-nine people died. In Langa and Nyanga, in the Western Cape, five people were shot dead by the police. The ANC declared 28 March 1960 a national day of mourning. Thousands of workers stayed at home.

THE REACTION

OF THE

SOUTH AFRICAN GOVERNMENT

The Government declared a State of Emergency on 30 March 1960 and started taking members of the ANC and the PAC into custody. Both the ANC and the PAC were declared banned organisations on 8 April. The South African government built up a powerful police force to be able to demolish any African resistance movement. The Security Branch of the police force was organised like a secret police force. The Police Armed Division was reinforced to prevent weapons being made available to Africans in urban and rural areas. Under the State of Emergency and the new safety laws, all policemen were given special powers of arrest and detention without trial.
OF THE

THE RESPONSE

ANC

AND THE

PAC

A first reaction was to establish armed militant branches:

ANC Umkhonto we Sizwe (Spear of Nation) or MK AIM: to sabotage targets like electrical power lines, Bantu

Administration Offices and railway lines. There was no desire to harm people. PAC Poqo (Alone or Pure)
South Africa became a republic outside the British Commonwealth on 31 May 1961. South Africa had been refused permanent membership on account of apartheid policy. The high command of MK was in the hands of Nelson Mandela. MK operated from a farmhouse in Rivonia, north of Johannesburg, but the police swooped down on these headquarters in July 1963 and took several of the leaders into custody. The police also discovered a plan for armed revolution, Operation Mayibuye, that contained information on a revolution aimed at overthrowing the government. The MK leadership was taken to court and charged with planning to overthrow the government. The Rivonia trial (1963 to 1964), as it was referred to, resulted in Nelson Mandela, Walter Sisulu and Govan Mbeki being sentenced to lifelong imprisonment on Robben Island on account of sabotage. During the following years the South African government managed to suppress resistance by means of harsh security measures. But many banned PAC and ANC members continued the struggle against apartheid and MK members received training overseas.

21 March is celebrated as Human Rights Day and has been a public holiday since 1994.

Apartheid under pressure in the Seventies

The Seventies
When the Bantu Education Bill was put forward in 1952, the incumbent Minister of Native Affairs, Dr Hendrik Verwoerd, stated that

... he would reform Bantu education to the extent that natives would be taught from their youth that equality with whites was not intended for them
The main purpose of the Bill therefore was to prepare black learners for a subservient position in society. The National Party was of the opinion that Africans were unable to fill any role besides that of labourers.

African schools did not follow the same curriculum as white schools any longer. Syllabuses for African education were based on the officially recognised African languages. The teaching of English was stopped in primary schools and curtailed in secondary schools. Subjects like Horticulture and Handwork were put forward as important for African learners.

BLACK CONSCIOUSNESS
Non-violent resistance to apartheid started making way for violent protest in the late Sixties. A new anti-Apartheid movement, the Black Consciousness Movement,

came to the fore at the time and educational, cultural and community groups, journalists and religious leaders were involved in it. The Black Consciousness Movement launched protests to rid themselves of the feeling of inferiority and to develop pride in the history of the Africans. Steve Biko, an African student leader and co-founder of the South African Students Organisation (SASO) opened membership of the movement to all who were discriminated against on the grounds of colour or race, irrespective of whether they were classified coloured, Black or Indian. All Africans were encouraged to join the movement proudly. Members of the movement needed to develop a strong, positive feeling about their own race to empower them to fight against white racism. The South African government was indirectly responsible for the rise of the Black Consciousness Movement. Segregation in higher education enabled Africans to come together and discuss ideas without interference from whites. The extreme frustration experienced by students was increased under the influence of the Black Consciousness Movement. This frustration centered on their awareness of their situation, which involved:

inferior education; poorly-trained educators; a lack of books and means.

In 1975 the government announced that 50% of the school subjects were to be taught through the medium of Afrikaans from Standard 5 (Grade 7) level. In the same year a new political organisation, Inkata yeNkululeko ye Siswe (Freedom of the Nation) was formed under the leadership of Chief Mangosuthu Buthelezi and a number of strikes also occurred in Durban. After 1972 the South African economic revival started to die down. The oil price increased, the gold price decreased and South Africa was faced with a serious shortage of skilled workers. The black townships were neglected and frustration levels among young Africans were rising. In 1974 Mozambique attained independence and the Black Consciousness Movement organised a number of Viva Frelimo gatherings in South Africa.

THE SOWETO UPRISING

On 16 June 1976, the day on which Afrikaans was to be forced onto the schools, learners took to the streets in protest. Approximately 15 000 learners, some as young as six or seven, packed the streets of Soweto and started moving in the direction of the Orlando West Junior Secondary School. The uprising was led by the Soweto Students Representative Council (SSRC) who supported the Black Consciousness Movement and had come into existence on 13 June 1976. The protesters carried posters bearing slogans such as the following: Afrikaans can go to hell.

We do not want to learn the language of our oppressors.

We want equal education, not slave education.

When they reached the barricades that had been erected by hundreds of armed policemen, they came to a halt and started droning: Amandla! Awethu! (The power is ours!). The police fired teargas into the crowd, but they did not disperse. Then the police started firing live ammunition into the crowd without warning and some of the protesters were wounded or killed. Hector Petersen was the first learner to be shot dead during the Soweto uprising. RESULTS:

The rioting quickly spread from Soweto to townships right through South Africa. Students clashed with the police and buildings used by Bantu Affairs, schools, beer halls belonging to the government, liquor stores, white-owned business ventures and motorcars were set alight. By the end of 1976 six hundred students had died. Thousands of students fled to other parts of Africa to join the liberation armies of the PAC and ANC as refugees. Between 1977 and 1978 more than 3 000 whites also left the country permanently.
Enforcement of Afrikaans in schools was relinquished and the government made a promise to allocate more funds to African education. In 1977 the Black Consciousness Movement and its newspapers were banned. Steve Biko died while he was under police detention because of fatal brain injuries sustained while the police assaulted him.

The 1980s
As early as 1987 the Prime Minister, John Vorster, suggested a plan to allow the Indians and Coloureds some say in central government. PW Botha took over as Prime Minister of the RSA in that year and he retained Vorsters Three-chamber Parliament. A referendum was held to test support for a changed constitution that was suggested, but the referendum only tested the opinions of white people. The African majority still was not given any representation in the new parliament. The purpose of the new constitution was to allow Coloured and Indian participation in the governing of the country by means of a three-chamber Parliament, without curtailing the power to govern held by the whites: Coloureds Indians Whites House of Representatives House of Delegates House of Assembly 85 45 178

Indians and Coloureds were to be given control of their own affairs, e.g. education, culture, health and local government. The majority of the Indian and Coloured voters boycotted the parliamentary elections of 1984 and 1988.

When PW Botha became State President, his powers were increased. He withdrew the Immorality Act in 1985, but people of other races were still not permitted to live in the white areas. The Pass Laws were finally abolished in 1986. A policy of orderly urbanization was instituted and this exercised strict control over the movement of Africans. Four important political movements were established by the African population of South Africa in the Eighties:

The United Democratic Front (UDF) The Azanian Peoples Organization (AZAPO) Inkatha The Congress of South African Students (COSAS)
The UDF was founded in Cape Town in 1983. This umbrella organisation was not a political party, but consisted of almost 600 anti-apartheid organisations. They were closely affiliated to the ANC and the Freedom Charter. AZAPO attracted Africans who did not agree with the sentiments of the Freedom Charter. They were also very critical of the middleclass leaders of the ANC. The UDF and AZAPO rejected the predominantly Zulu Inkatha organisation under the leadership of Chief Mangosuthu Buthelezi. They regarded him as a puppet as he was the leader of KwaZulu, the black homeland created by the white government. Competition between Inkatha warlords and UDF members led to extensive violence among Africans. The Congress of South African Students (COSAS), the black student group who demanded non-racial education for all, had been involved in organizing school boycotts since 1979. In 1984 they and the trade union movement again organised large-scale school boycotts. In selected areas there was boycotting of white-owned shops; young Africans known as Comrades tried to take over the townships; and a number of African councillors and policemen were killed in an effort to get rid of government agents and sympathisers. This was part of an attempt to make the townships ungovernable. A State of Emergency was declared in the Transvaal and the Eastern Cape on 21 June 1985. This was later extended to the rest of South Africa. COSAS was banned, but boycotting and rebellion increased right across South Africa. By 1985 President PW Botha was already thoroughly aware of Nelson Mandelas power as a symbol. He therefore announced in February that he would release this leader of the anti-apartheid struggle on condition that

... Mandela would agree to reject violence as a weapon in the struggle against apartheid.
Botha was hoping that the instigators of violence would listen if Mandela asked them to relinquish their extremist behaviour. Mandela refused to do this. He did not favour violent means, but explained that he could not reject violence while the South African government continued to enforce apartheid by violent means.

Seventeen organisations were either banned or had their activities severely curtailed in February 1988. These organisations included the Detainees Support Committee, which was a body directed at monitoring and encouraging the upholding of human rights, The National Crisis Committee (that aimed to bond parents, educators and learners in the education struggle) and the militant South African Youth Congress (1987). The trade union federation COSATU could not take part in protest action anymore. Their activities were further curtailed by the Labour Relations Amendment Act which placed severe restrictions on workers capacity to be involved in communal negotiations. The only critics of apartheid who were still able to practice a measure of freedom of speech were church leaders like Dr Alan Boesak, Frank Chikane and Archbishop Tutu, all of whom were opposed to the use of violence in the struggle against apartheid. During the State of Emergency, the police were able to apprehend and detain thousands of South Africans, among whom were African political, spiritual and trade union leaders. Homes and workplaces were searched without search warrants. Botha also gave orders for newspapers to be censored and the law prohibited journalists from publishing the names of people who were taken into custody. Nelson Mandela then wrote to PW Botha and suggested that they enter into discussion by means of a dialogue. The subject was to be THE FUTURE OF SOUTH FRICA. The two leaders had to meet in secret and Mandela was smuggled out of jail in great secrecy in July 1989 to engage in a private conversation with Botha in Cape Town. A month later PW Botha resigned due to illness. FW de Klerk then inherited the task of continuing the negotiations negotiations that would eventually lead to freedom, not for Nelson Mandela only, but for all South Africans.

How did the world react to apartheid?

The United Nations Organisation (UNO)

The General Meeting of the United Nations Organisation voted in favour of economic and diplomatic sanctions against South Africa as early as 1962. In 1963 the Security Council of the UNO recommended that countries should stop supplying arms to South Africa. In 1966 the General Meeting voted in favour of bringing South Africas control over South West Africa (Namibia) to an end. In 1974 South Africa lost the right to address the United Nations. After the death of Steve Biko in 1977 the United Nations Organisation instituted arms sanctions against South Africa, i.e. all UNO member countries were prohibited from providing guns and other weapons to South Africa. The UNO declared apartheid a crime against humanity.

African countries

Independent African countries prohibited South African aeroplanes and ships from using their airports and harbours respectively. The OAU (Organisation for African Unity) insisted on a trade boycott of South Africa.

African states took the lead in forcing South Africa out of the International Labour Organisation, the Food and Agricultural Organisation and the World Health Organisation, as well as the Olympic Games. In 1966, SWAPO (South West African Peoples Organisation) commenced an armed struggle against South Africa.

International sport

In 1968 South African athletes were prohibited from taking part in the Olympic Games of that year. This disqualification was made permanent in 1976. In 1977 the Gleneagles Agreement made it obligatory for countries in the League of Nations to discourage contact or competition between their citizens and sporting organisations, teams or people from South Africa. By the late Eighties South Africa had been banned from 90% of world sport.

The International world

Anti-apartheid feelings in the USA resulted in a decision by American banks to stop all loans to South Africa in August 1985. The flourishing South African economy of the late Sixties and the Seventies, which had started to show a downward trend by 1983, had almost collapsed. In 1986 the Congress of the USA approved the Extended Anti-apartheid Act. This law made provision for economic sanctions against, or limitation of business involvement with South Africa. American business organisations like General Motors and Kodak withdrew from South Africa. Peugeot, Pepsi-Cola and IBM Computers suspended their South African activities. Between 1984 and 1989 approximately 277 companies withdrew their investments from South Africa. The United Nations arms embargo against South Africa did not prevent certain Western nations from illegally providing military equipment to South Africa. South Africa pointed out that the arms embargo in fact encouraged the development of a self-sufficient local arms industry in a meaningful way. There was increasing pressure on the West from liberation organisations and prominent representatives of the church to dissociate itself from South Africa. At a meeting of the League of Nations in October 1985 a decision was taken to introduce sanctions against South Africa, although the British government believed that sanctions would harm Africans more that the whites in South Africa. Several South African anti-apartheid leaders like Chief Mangosuthu Buthelezi and Helen Suzman were opposed to the introduction of sanctions. In the meantime sanctions and disinvestment caused other problems, e.g. greater levels of unemployment, civil unrest and a reactionary attitude among white supremacists.

A New Vision for South Africa: 1990 1999

During his presidential opening address to Parliament on 2 February 1990, FW de Klerk made a number of announcements that caused a worldwide stir:

He was lifting the banning order on political groupings. He was ending the state of emergency. He had given instructions that all political prisoners were to be freed this led to the release of Nelson Mandela on 11 February 1990, after 27 years spent in jail.
Mandelas release was a symbolic turning point in the struggle against apartheid. Mandela and De Klerk, two very dissimilar leaders, continued their negotiations behind closed doors. Their eventual purpose was to develop a new non-racial national constitution that would be just to all. It was not easy to come to an agreement and both leaders had to make concessions:

Mandela was required to repudiate violence publicly (August 1990) De Klerk was required to recall the main apartheid laws, e.g. the Population Registration Act (September 1990)
Formal negotiations between the ANC and the National Party (NP) commenced at Groote Schuur, the former official residence of the South African Prime Minister, on 2 May 1990. Stumbling blocks and ways to overcome them were identified. Some examples were:

security legislation; the return of exiles; troops in the townships; political detainees; the state of emergency; the armed struggle of the ANC; the necessity of bringing an end to violence.
This resulted in the Groote Schuur Minute (document). A combined working group was to be appointed to investigate the issues. Tension, however, remained because the NP opposed the ANC decision to include Joe Slovo, the General Secretary of the SA Communist Party, in their team of negotiators. The next round of discussions commenced in Pretoria on 6 August 1990. It was an important step in furthering the process of reconciliation. The ANC announced that the armed struggle would be suspended with immediate effect. The combined declaration known as the Pretoria Minute came to be regarded as a historical truce.

The Convention for a Democratic South Africa (CODESA) eventually began negotiations towards the transition to democracy in December 1991. The ANC and NP had difficulty in agreeing on the type of constitution that the new South Africa should have and they arrived at a dead end, which meant that negotiations came to a standstill. Meanwhile violence continued, especially on the Witwatersrand and in Natal. A dangerous development occurred when an unidentified terrorist group that was regarded as a third force by the ANC, attempted to sabotage the negotiations by means of violence and slaughter. Thousands were killed in Natal in the war between the ANC and Inkatha. Both the ANC and the NP realised that something had to be done to bring the instability of the political situation under control. Negotiations were reinstituted in September 1992 and the NP and ANC signed a Settlement The basis on which the two parties began to work out a compromise was that of a Government of National Unity. It would comprise government by a coalition for a fiveyear period following a democratic election. The main figures in the negotiation process were Cyril Ramaphosa (ANC) and Roelf Meyer (NP). De Klerk had called for a referendum among whites in 1992 to determine the level of support for the process of reform that he had commenced in February 1990. The outcome was seen as a triumph for the NP, with 80% of the voters coming out in favour of reform. Chris Hani, the leader of the SA Communist Party, was shot dead in the driveway of his home by a white rightist in April 1993. Protest marches followed and white right-wing organisations tried to undermine the agreement reached between the NP and the ANC. An example was the armed invasion of the negotiation hall of the World Trade Centre by right wing supporters. The Inkatha Freedom Party also withdrew from negotiations at one point. Mandela and De Klerk were joint recipients of the Nobel Peace Prize in 1993. Consensus was reached on an interim constitution at the negotiating table and 24 April 1994 was appointed as the date for first democratic elections in South Africa. A considerable number of violent incidents continued to occur: The Inkatha Freedom Party organised a march to the ANC headquarters in Shell House, in central Johannesburg, in which a number of Inkatha supporters were shot dead by the ANC; and a right-wing bombing campaign in Johannesburg during the days preceding the election led to the death of 21 people.

The election itself proceeded peacefully. Voters were to vote simultaneously for the
national and the provincial governments through a system of two votes per voter. International observers declared the elections to have been free and fair. The national election results were: ANC 62% NP 20% IFP 10% Freedom Front 2% Democratic Party 2% PAC 1%

The results for the provincial election were: ANC Gauteng North West Northern Province Mpumalanga Free State Eastern Cape Northern Cape IFP Kwazulu-Natal NP Western Cape A Government of National Unity was assembled, and Nelson Mandela became the first president of a democratic South Africa. Thabo Mbeki was the executive vice-president and FW de Klerk was the second vice-president. The principle of proportional representation determined that the ANC would have 12 ministers in the Government of National Unity, the NP six and the IFP three. The leader of the IFP, Mangosuthu Buthelezi, was the first Minister of Internal Affairs.

The Reconstruction and Development Programme as a basis for the new democracy
Mr Nelson Rohihlahla Mandela presided at the official opening of Parliament on 24 May 1994 and spelled out the new Governments objective of a people-centred community. The Reconstruction and Development Programme (RDP) comprised the most important statement concerning South African society since the Freedom Charter. This is an integrated socio-economic policy framework aimed at the application of all people and resources in developing a democratic, non-racial and non-sexist future. AIM: The people should govern. VISION: The democratisation of power, which means that all South Africans should have access to rights, to be able to exercise their power. This requires capable, effective, responsible and transparent government.

EMPHASISING empowerment of women generally; special attention to handicapped people; clean, fresh water for everyone in SA; vital and expanded agriculture; the right of all workers to a living wage and decent working conditions; the right of all communities and individuals to communicate through the media; development of human resources by the empowerment of people through suitable education and training; accessibility and affordability of all sport and recreation facilities for all South Africans.

The Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC)

The TRC was established in 1995, with Archbishop Desmond Tutu as the chairperson, Alex Boraine as the vice-chairperson and a further 17 commissioners appointed by the president. The main purpose of the TRC was to promote national unity and reconciliation through a spirit of understanding that would rise above the conflicts and divisions of the past. The tasks of the TRC were:

obtaining a view of the causes, nature and extent of the gross violations of human rights that were perpetrated during the period between 1 March 1960 and 10 May 1994 by identifying individuals and organisations (e.g. the NP, ANC, and security forces) that were responsible for such violations; making recommendations to the president for measures to prevent violation of human rights in the future; the restoration of the human and civic dignity of victims; the extension of amnesty to persons who have made a full disclosure of all information concerning acts perpetrated with a political objective in mind. The TRC offered victims a platform from which to speak of their suffering and from which amnesty, if appropriate, could be given. The issue of reparation would also be discussed. The five-volume TRC report was handed to President Mandela on 29 October 1998 and was immediately made available to the public.

The Land Claims Court

A white paper on land reform was released in 1995. The document incorporated various programmes based on mutual relationships and dependency. This programme aimed to acknowledge and protect the wide spectrum of needs and rights pertaining to the soil of South African citizens. The experience of the expropriation of land, which not only denied the rights of the majority of the population to possess land but also affected agricultural development, remains alive in the memories of many South Africans. This court proposes to return land to people who had lost their land through expropriation resulting from discriminatory legislation after 1913.

Final Constitution
After two years of work by the Constitutional Assembly under the leadership of Cyril Ramaphosa, the final draft of the constitution was completed in 1996. The Constitutional Assembly consisted of the combined newly-elected House of Assembly/National Council and Senate. The Constitutional Court referred the Final Constitution back to the Constitutional Assembly in 1996. Amendments to bring the Constitution in line with constitutional principles were incorporated and the Court approved this in December 1996, after which the Constitution came into force in February 1997. The constitution comprises many liberal democratic features, like an accountable Charter of Human Rights. Any cases related to constitutional matters are to be brought before the Constitutional Court.

The Second Democratic Election

The NP eventually withdrew from the Government of National Unity and FW de Klerk resigned as leader of the NP in 1997. In 1999, the second democratic election was held. Thabo Mbeki became president of the RSA, with Jacob Zuma as his Vice-president. The New National Party (with Marthinus van Schalkwyk as its leader) and the Democratic Party (of Tony Leon) entered into a co-operation agreement for the purposes of the election and fought the election under the banner of the Democratic Alliance.

Conclusion
Due to a rift in the Democratic Alliance that occurred in 2001, the New National Party now cooperates with the ANC at all three levels of government: national, provincial and local. The NNP was absorbed into the ANC in August 2004.

GRADE 9 MODULE 3
The Cold War In Europe
MINIMUM CONTENT

What was the Cold War?

The Cold War refers to the confrontation that occurred between Communist Russia and its allies and the capitalist West, under the leadership of the USA, from 1945 to 1990. It was described as cold because there was no actual battle or "hot war".

What was the cause of the Cold War?

Different Political systems!

The United States of America Democracy - people are able to vote for different political parties. Capitalism - property and business concerns are owned by individuals. Freedom - individual rights are protected, the government does not interfere in the lives of people.

The USSR Dictatorship - people could vote for Communist Party only. Communism - business concerns and property under state control. Control - the state is of greater importance than individuals, people's lives are controlled.

The USA and the USSR were governed according to different political systems. Each country regarded its own system as the better one and was therefore suspicious of the other. America was worried that the USSR would attempt to spread communism throughout Europe and the USSR was worried that the USA and other capitalist countries would try to undermine communism.

Origin of the war

1.

Slogan; Allied forces

The slogan of the Allied Forces declared that the fight was to ensure the survival of democracy and of the free world.

2.

Karl Marx; Friedrich Engels

Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels drew up the Communist manifesto and declared "A spectre is haunting Europe the spectre of Communism."

3.

Fear; menace
Fear of the threat of communism gripped the democratic countries of the West.

4.

Menace; Communist USSR

Once Germany was vanquished, the threat was seen to come from Communist USSR.

5.

Stalin; expansion
Stalin tried to extend Russian influence right across Europe by the occupation of large areas of Germany, Finland, Poland and Rumania.

6.

Mutual mistrust
There was mutual mistrust when Stalin (USSR), Roosevelt (USA) and Churchill (Britain) met for the Yalta conference on the Crimean Peninsula in 1945

7.

Deteriorating relationship
There were obvious indications that the relationship, particularly between the USSR and the USA, was deteriorating at the Potsdam conference.

8.

The Potsdam conference

Stalin (USSR), Truman (USA) and Clement Attlee (Britain) were present at the Potsdam conference.

9.

Agreement
At Potsdam, it was agreed that: Britain would occupy the north-western area of Germany; The USA would occupy the southern part of Germany; France would occupy the region to the south of the Rhine; and The USSR would be in control of the eastern region. At this conference (Potsdam), Truman also took Stalin and Molotov aside and confided in them, informing them that the USA had developed a new weapon that could cause large-scale destruction (the atom bomb). Two atom bombs were dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki on 6 and 9 August 1945. After this, the USSR set out to do everything in its power to obtain the technology that was needed for such weapons.

Yalta conference, February 1945

Nagasaki, 1945

The Iron Curtain

1.

USA; Peace
The USA and its allies hoped to reach an agreement that would guarantee future peace in Europe.

2.

USSR; extension of power

The USSR tried to ensure that Germany would never again become a menace in Europe by dividing the country and extending its own power in Eastern Europe.

3.

Pro-communist governments
Pro-communist governments had come to be established in Poland, Hungary, Rumania, Bulgaria and Albania by 1946.

4.

Address; Fulton; USSR

In a speech delivered at Fulton, Missouri (USA), Churchill declared that the USSR was intent on unrestricted extension of its ideology (communism) and expansion of its power.

5.

Appeal; stand together

He called on the West to stand together and establish an alliance against communism.

6.

Separation
His speech fostered the separation between the East and the West.

THE MARSHALL PLAN (1947)

George Marshall, the American secretary of state, announced his economic recovery programme for Europe, the ERP, in June 1947. According to this programme, any country in Europe would be able to get economic and financial support from the USA. The purpose of the plan was to facilitate the economic recovery of Europe and to curb the expansion of communist influence. Communism is not able to gain a foothold where there is economic prosperity Sixteen countries decided to make use of the Marshall Plan; among these were Britain, France, Norway, Sweden, Austria, and the Netherlands. The USSR and its satellite states in Eastern Europe were the only countries that refrained from making use of this help. The USSR was suspicious of the American offer and the Marshall Plan therefore came to be part of the Cold War. In 1949 the USSR responded to the American offer by instituting the Molotov Plan by which economic aid was made available to Eastern European countries.

THE BERLIN BLOCKADE AND AIRLIFT, 1948-1949

The three Western zones in Berlin and Germany decided to make use of the Marshall Plan, but the Russian zone did not. This made the Iron Curtain more impervious and caused further distancing. The Allies wished to unite the different zones in Germany to establish a common policy for the German railway system and to reform the financial system. The USSR objected to this in the strongest possible terms, with Stalin refusing to co-operate. Thanks to the assistance offered through the Marshall Plan, economic conditions in West Germany and West Berlin improved rapidly. Russia, however, closed off all rail, road and canal links between West Berlin and West Germany. Russia expected that the Western nations would withdraw from West Berlin and leave the whole of the city to Russian control. But President Truman of the USA announced: "We are going to stay. Period." This was because the Western powers realised that any concession with regard to West Berlin would allow communism to gain a foothold in Europe. The West decided that, with access to Berlin by land being prevented, an airlift had to provide a solution. At least 4 000 tons of goods per day were required to meet the needs of the 2 million inhabitants of Berlin. For this operation, large aeroplanes (Skymasters) were landing at or departing from Berlin every 30 seconds. By March 1949, 8 000 tons of goods were being delivered daily to provide what was necessary in Berlin. The USSR lifted the blockade on 9 May 1949, without offering an explanation. The USSR had shown how easily they could cause the financial disruption of the West and the West had shown that it was not prepared to simply yield to the USSR. THE FOUNDING OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC TREATY ORGANISATION (NATO) AND THE WARSAW PACT

Britain, France, Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg concluded the defence treaty of Brussels in March 1948. In April 1949, the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) was established when the USA, Canada, Portugal, Denmark, Ireland, Italy and Norway also became members of the defence treaty of Brussels. They agreed to regard an attack on any of the member states as an attack on all. The armies of these countries were placed under NATO command for the coordination of the defence of the West. General Eisenhower of the USA was appointed as the first commander-in-chief of the NATO forces in Europe. West Germany was accepted as a member of NATO in 1954.

The USSR reaction to the founding of NATO was to found the Warsaw Pact. The countries who became members of this pact in 1955 included the USSR, Albania, Poland, Bulgaria, Hungary, Romania, Czechoslovakia and East Germany. Nato and the Warsaw Pact resulted in a very clear division of the world into two camps.

THE WEAPONS RACE

The USSR had developed its own nuclear bomb by 1949. This nation could therefore no longer be threatened with the use of nuclear power. The American answer to this was to develop the more powerful hydrogen bomb. This resulted in an arms race between these two countries, which demanded high expenditure for the development of nuclear and conventional weaponry. Large-scale espionage efforts accompanied this and Berlin was the place where spies and counterspies from both sides usually exchanged information.

OTHER COLD WAR INCIDENTS

The Korean War (1950-1953): The USA and other Western nations (including SA) sent troops and aeroplanes to support South Korea in a war against an occupying force from Communist North Korea. Hungary (1956): The communist government had to face unrest that was suppressed with Russian tanks. The USSR wanted to stop Hungary from leaving the Warsaw Pact. Vietnam: The USA gave military support to South Vietnam in a war against North Vietnam. The USA's involvement resulted in great loss of life among American soldiers. In 1973 the USA withdrew from the war, thereby allowing communist North Vietnam to overpower the south and establish a united Vietnam under a Communist government. Czechoslovakia (1968): The Czech leader, Dubcek, announced reforms. The USSR was fearful that the Communist Party would disintegrate and replaced Dubcek by force. Poland (1980): The labour union Solidarity, under Lech Walesa, also tried to challenge Communist control. The Polish government, however, was unable to suppress Solidarity completely, in spite of assistance from the USSR. Walesa eventually became the first President of a Democratic Poland. Cuba (1962): Die world hovered on the brink of a nuclear war when the Russians wanted to place missiles in position in Cuba (within 80 km of the USA border). The USA implemented a blockade of Cuba and the USSR was obliged to back off.

THE SPACE RACE AND THE NUCLEAR RACE

The USA received a shock when the Russians succeeded in placing the first satellite in orbit round the earth in 1957. This feat was followed by the Russians placing a manned spaceship in orbit, with Yuri Gagarin as the first space voyager. This led to fierce competition between the USA and the USSR. The USA would spend billions of dollars to overtake the USSR in space. This is what led the USA to develop the Gemini, Mercury and Apollo space programmes. In 1961, President JF Kennedy promised that America would put a man on the moon before the end of the century. This promise was fulfilled during the Apollo 11 mission in July 1969. Further developments would include the establishment of spy satellites and intercontinental ballistic missiles. The USA also introduced a space shuttle programme in 1981 and developed a space station.

THE END OF THE COLD WAR

The ending of the Cold War can be ascribed to President Mikhail Gorbachev (USSR) and President Ronald Reagan (USA) in particular. Reagan realised that the USSR was spending more that 50% of its annual income on weaponry. He wished to place the USSR before a challenge by developing the Stealth bomber and socalled "Star Wars" technology. The Russians, though, were bankrupt. The cost of their space programme had become enormous and maintenance of countries in Eastern Europe had also become too costly. Reagan and Gorbachev met on several occasions and good progress was made with the destruction of nuclear weapons. Gorbachev also announced a more open policy towards the West and economic reforms in the USSR. At a conference held in Iceland (1988) these two leaders declared that the hostility that existed between their countries was at an end. In 1989, President George Bush (Sen.) and Gorbachev declared that the Cold War had finally come to an end.

THE FALLS OF COMMUNISM AND APARTHEID

The Soviet Union had started to disintegrate by 1990 and some of its federated republics, like Byelorussia, Georgia and the Baltic Republics had attained independence. In Eastern Europe countries like Hungary, Yugoslavia and Poland had also withdrawn from the Warsaw Pact. In East Germany, communism crumbled and the Berlin Wall, the symbol of German separation and of the Cold War, was demolished. Communism had come to a fall in Europe in particular, by 1990. The hourglass had also run out for Apartheid in South Africa. During his first presidential address at the opening of Parliament on 2 February 1990, FW de Klerk made announcements that caused a stir right across the world: He was lifting the ban on political organisations. He was ending the existing state of emergency. He had instructed the release of all political detainees this led to the release of Nelson Mandela on the 11th of February 1990, after 27 years of detention.

Mandela's liberation was a symbolic about-turn in the struggle against apartheid.

These diverse leaders (Mandela and De Klerk) continued their important discussions on the future of the country behind closed doors. would ensure fair treatment of every citizen. To reach agreement was not easy, and both leaders were obliged to make concessions.

The eventual objective was the creation of a new, non-racial, national constitution that The Nobel Prize for Peace was awarded jointly to Mandela and De Klerk in 1993. Consensus on an interim constitution was reached at the negotiation table and it was
decided that South Africa's first democratic election would take place on 27 April 1994.

The election was conducted peacefully.

Voters had to bring out a vote for both the national and the provincial governments in a system of two votes per voter. International observers declared the election free and fair. Nelson Mandela was the first president of a democratic SA, Thabo Mbeki was the executive deputy president and FW de Klerk was the second deputy president. The principle of proportional representation was applied, by which 12 ministers in the Government of National Unity were from the ANC, six were from the NP and three from the IFP. The leader of the IFP, Mangosuthu

A Government of National Unity was constituted.

Buthelezi, was the first Minister of the Interior/Home Affairs of this democratically elected South African government.

GRADE 9 MODULE 4
CURRENT AFFAIRS
MEMORANDUM
..........ACTIVITY 1 1.1 To bring about unity No meddling in domestic affairs Non-violent settlement of disputes Civil wars still occur e.g. Sudan and the DRC Internal strife

1.2 Both indicate conflict, disunity 1.3 Non-violent settlement of disputes, made undone in Source C Civil War in the Sudan 2.1 The OAU concentrated on the ending of colonialism and Apartheid, little attention was given to human rights, democracy and good governance. 2.2 The creation of good governance in Africa, economic development and democracy. 2.3 The ending of colonialism and Apartheid.

..........ACTIVITY 2 1. Similarities About children Suffering children Everyone in Africa Differences Some through AIDS, others through war Sources in different media

Other possibilities can also be accepted.

2. 3.

Children die / Children are orphans The Declaration of Human Rights children not directly involved with armed conflict.

To protect them, also to consider them in regard to their age. To let hildren grow up in an appropriate environment. (Any other appropriate deductions).

4.

No, not adults, they will experience more trauma that will affect them for the rest of their lives, or any applicable answer.

..........ACTIVITY 3 1.

2. 3. 4. 5.

Source B gives the number as 36 million while Source D gives it as 42 million. Source D. Reasons: More recent data, data received directly from UNAIDS. Famine / Loss of life / health costs / Yes, people become ill, do not have access to medicine and cannot work the land, therefore they cannot produce food. In addition to this, there are periodic droughts. ON THE MAP ITSELF

6.