COMPOUND MICROSCOPE

Parts of the Microscope

1. Eyepiece Contains a magnifying lens that focuses the image from the objective into your eye. For focusing under low magnification For focusing under high magnification or low For large specimens or overview For detailed viewing or small specimens What you want to look at Supports specimen in correct location to lens Focuses the light on specimen Regulates amount of light and contrast Illuminates the specimen for viewing

2. Course Adjust 3. Fine Adjust 4. Low Power Objective 5. High Power Objective 6. Specimen on glass slide 7. Stage 8. Condenser 9. Diaphragm (iris or disc) 10. Light Source

Eukaryotic Cell Parts, Functions & Diagrams

ANIMAL CELL PLANT CELL

Animals. plants, fungi, protists, algae, and water and slime molds are eukaryotes - organisms composed of one or more nucleated cells. Here are the basics. Although there are differences among eukaryotes, overall, eukaryotic cells share many characteristics, such as the following.

Eukaryotic Cell Envelope & External Structures

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Cell Wall: The cells of plants, algae and fungi have thick, protective cell walls, which provide support, help maintain the shape of the cell, and prevent the cell from taking in too much fresh water and bursting. Plasma Membrane: All cells, both prokaryotic and eukaryotic, have a plasma membrane, made mainly of phospholipids and proteins, which functions as a barrier, regulating the movement of materials between the inside and the outside of the cell. Cilia & Flagella: These extensions of the cell are covered with plasma membrane and supported internally with a structural system of microtubuleskind of like a bone covered in skin. Flagella, which are longer, and cilia, which are shorter, aid in cell movement. Cilia, which are able to beat together in a coordinated manner, can also help direct materials around the outside of the cell.

Eukaryotic Membrane-bound Organelles

The main distinction between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells is the presence of membranous organelles, a feature that only eukaryotes have. Organelles separate function within the eukaryotic cell, like a bunch of tiny, specialized factories that work together to help the cell run.
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The Endomembrane System: Organelles that are membranous have an additional handy feature, a built-in internal transportation system. Because membranous organelles are enclosed by the same type of material as the plasma membrane is made of (phospholipids and proteins), cellular supplies can easily be shipped when a piece of one membranebound organelle breaks off, forming a vesicle that travels within the cell, and then fuses

with a different membrane-bound organelle. Material can also enter (endocytosis) or exit (exocytosis) the cell via this method. Nucleus: The nucleus is typically the largest and most visible organelle in a eukaryotic cell. Bound by a double-layer nuclear membrane, the nucleus contains the cells genomethe main genetic instructions in the form of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid). Endoplasmic Reticulum: Functioning mainly as a factory for making and shipping proteins and lipids, the ER is network of hollow tubes, extending off of the nuclear membrane. There are two types of ER, rough and smooth. Rough endoplasmic reticulum is covered with ribosomes, non-membrane-bound organelles which are the sites of protein synthesis within the cell. Smooth endoplasmic reticulum is not associated with ribosomes, and specializes in the synthesis and transport of lipids. Golgi Body: These pancake-like stacks of vesicles as another type of factory within the cell. The Golgi body modifies cellular molecules and coordinates the packaging and shipment of materials out of the cell. It is the only organelle that can generate lysosomes. Lysosomes: This specialist vesicle contains lysozymes, enzymes that can degrade organic materials. They function in cellular digestion and the recycling of materials within the cell. Peroxisomes: A type of specialist vesicle required by cells that use aerobic respiration (oxygen to extract energy from food) and made by the endoplasmic reticulum. Peroxisomes are armed with enzymes that break down dangerous oxygen free radicals.

Other Eukaryotic Cell Components and Organelles

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Mitochondria: These tiny powerhouses of the cell, are double-membrane bound organelles which extract energy from food to produce ATP (adesnosine-5- triphosphate), a multi-purpose molecule that carries energy for use within the cell. Cytoplasm: The inside of the cell, between the nucleus and plasma membrane, is filled with a gel-like fluid in which the organelles are suspended. Cytoplasm includes both the liquid (called cytosol) and the suspended organelles. Cytoskeleton: Composed of microtubules, intermediate filaments and microfilaments, this network of fibers provides an inner framework for the cell. The cytoskeleton supports the cells structure, anchors and helps transport organelles, and aids in cell division. Microtubule Organizing Center (MTOC): This eukaryotic structure is where microtubules are assembled and anchored. In animal cells the MTOC is called the centrosome, which consists of two centrioles. In plant cells, the nuclear envelope appears to function as the main MTOC.

Prokaryotic Cell Parts, Functions & Diagrams

Prokaryotes - simple, single-cells, yet remarkably successful organisms. Here's an overview of the structures and functions of prokaryotic cells. Prokaryotes are all single-cell organisms, and include bacteria, and bacteria-like Archaea. Prokaryotic cells are much simpler than the more evolutionarily advanced eukaryotic cell. Whereas eukaryotic cells have many different functional compartments, divided by membranes, prokaryotes only have one membrane, the plasma membrane, which encloses all of the cells internal contents. If a eukaryotic cell is analogous to a big house with many different rooms, a prokaryotic cell is like a one-room, studio apartment.

Internal Structures of Prokaryotic Cells

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Plasma Membrane: The plasma membrane is a double-layer of phospholipids with associated proteins and other molecules. The plasma membrane is essentially the bag that holds all of the intracellular material and regulates the movement of materials into and out of the cell. Cytoplasm: This is what the cell is filled with, inside the plasma membrane - a gel-like liquid with all of the cellular organelles suspended within. Cytoskeleton: It has only recently been discovered that rod-shaped bacteria and Archaea possess cytoskeletal proteins that function in a similar way to the cytoskeleton of eukaryotic cells. The cytoskeleton provides structural support to the cell and plays a role in cell-division. Ribosomes: All cells, both prokaryotic and eukaryotic, have multiple ribosomes within. Ribosomes are the protein-making machinery of the cell.

Genetic Material of Prokaryotes

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Nucleoid: The nucleoid is the region of the cytoplasm that contains the genomethe main genetic material of the cell. Bacteria and Archaeans typically have a single, circular chromosome. Plasmids: In addition to the bacterial chromosome, bacteria may also contain one or more plasmids. A plasmid is a non-essential piece of DNA that confers an advantage to the bacteria, such as antibiotic resistance, virulence (the ability to cause disease) and conjugation (a bacteriums ability to share its plasmids with other bacteria). Plasmids are also found in some eukaryotic microbes, such as yeasts.

Prokaryotic Cell Structures Outside of Plasma Membrane

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Cell Wall: Nearly all prokaryotes have a protective cell wall that prevents them from bursting in a hypotonic environment (an aqueous environment with a lower concentration of solutes than are found within the cell). The composition of cell walls vary depending on the type of organisms, but most cell walls contain a combination of the major organic moleculesproteins, carbohydrates and lipids. Bacteria have a unique molecule called peptidoglycan in their cell wall. Archaean cell walls do not contain this molecule. Cell wall composition of bacteria allow scientists to classify bacteria as either Gram-positive or Gram-negative. Glycocalyx: The glycocalyx is a layer present in some bacteria, and located outside of the cell. There are two types of glycocalyces: slime layers and capsules. Slime layers help bacteria stick to things and protect them from drying out, particularly in hypertonic environments. Capsules also allow bacteria to stick to things, but have the added benefit of helping encapsulated bacteria hide from the hosts immune system.

Cell Extentions: There are several different types of cell extensions associated with bacteria, all a made of delicate protein strands. Bacterial cell extensions include:

1. flagella: long whip-like extensions that help bacteria move about the environment 2. fimbriae allow bacteria to adhere to target host cells, so play a major role in bacterial virulence 3. conjugation pili: the tubes used to transfer plasmids from donor to recipient bacteria

PREPARED BY: JEFFERSON B. GUMIRAN, RN, RM, MSN Biology Instructor

MITOSIS
It is the process by which a eukaryotic cell separates the chromosomes in its cell nucleus into two identical sets, in two separate nuclei.

Prophase
Normally, the genetic material in the nucleus is in a loosely bundled coil called chromatin. At the onset of prophase, chromatin condenses together into a highly ordered structure called a chromosome.

Metaphase
Metaphase comes from the Greek meaning "after."Then the two centrosomes start pulling the chromosomes through their attached centromeres towards the two ends of the cell.As a result, the chromosomes come under longitudinal tension from the two ends of the cell. The centromeres of the chromosomes, in some sense, convene along the metaphase plate or equatorial plane, an imaginary line that is equidistant from the two centrosome poles.

Anaphase
When the chromosomes have lined up along the metaphase plate, the cell proceeds to anaphase (from the Greek meaning up, against, back, or re-).Two events then occur: first, the proteins that bind sister chromatids together are cleaved. The force that causes the centrosomes to move towards the ends of the cell is still unknown, although there is a theory that suggests that the rapid assembly and breakdown of microtubules may cause this movement .At the end of anaphase, the cell has succeeded in separating identical copies of the genetic material into two distinct populations.

Telophase
Telophase (from the Greek meaning "end") is a reversal of prophase event .It "cleans up" the after effects of mitosis. At telophase,microtubules continue to lengthen, elongating the cell even more.Corresponding sister chromosomes attach at opposite ends of the cell.

MEIOSIS
It is a special type of cell division necessary for sexual reproduction. The cells produced by meiosis are gametes or spores. The animals' gametes are called sperm and egg cells.

Thus, instead of producing only two types of chromosome (all capital or all lower case), four different chromosomes are produced. This doubles the variability of gamete genotypes. The occurrence of a crossing-over is indicated by a special structure, a chiasma (plural chiasmata) since the recombined inner alleles will align more with others of the same type (e.g. a with a, B with B). Near the end of Prophase I, the homologous chromosomes begin to separate slightly, although they remain attached at chiasmata.

Crossing-over between homologous chromosomes produces chromosomes with new associations of genes and alleles.

Events of Prophase I (save for synapsis and crossing over) are similar to those in Prophase of mitosis: chromatin condenses into chromosomes, the nucleolus dissolves, nuclear membrane is disassembled, and the spindle apparatus forms

Metaphase I

Metaphase I is when tetrads line-up along the equator of the spindle. Spindle fibers attach to the centromere region of each homologous chromosome pair. Other metaphase events as in mitosis.

Anaphase I

Anaphase I is when the tetrads separate, and are drawn to opposite poles by the spindle fibers. The centromeres in Anaphase I remain intact.

Telophase I

Telophase I is similar to Telophase of mitosis, except that only one set of (replicated) chromosomes is in each "cell". Depending on species, new nuclear envelopes may or may not form. Some animal cells may have division of the centrioles during this phase.

Prophase II

During Prophase II, nuclear envelopes (if they formed during Telophase I) dissolve, and spindle fibers reform. All else is as in Prophase of mitosis. Indeed Meiosis II is very similar to mitosis.

Metaphase II Metaphase II is similar to mitosis, with spindles moving chromosomes into equatorial area and attaching to the opposite sides of the centromeres Anaphase II

During Anaphase II, the centromeres split and the former chromatids (now chromosomes) are segregated into opposite sides of the cell.

Telophase II

Telophase II is identical to Telophase of mitosis. Cytokinesis separates the cells.

PREPARED BY: JEFFERSON B. GUMIRAN, RN, RM, MSN Biology Instructor