1. Def of Personality:Personality is made up of the characteristic patterns of thoughts, feelings and behaviours that make a person unique.

In addition to this, personality arises from within the individual and remains fairly consistent throughout life.

2.Some of the fundamental characteristics of personality include:a.Consistency:- There is generally a recognizable order and regularity to behaviours. Essentially, people act in the same ways or similar ways in a variety of situations. b.Psychological and physiological:- Personality is a psychological construct, but research suggests that it is also influenced by biological processes and needs. c.Impact behaviours and actions:- Personality does not just influence how we move and respond in our environment; it also causes us to act in certain ways. d.Multiple expressions:- Personality is displayed in more than just behaviour. It can also be seen in our thoughts, feelings, close relationships and other social interactions.

Carl Jung
1.Sanguine(Artisans):-The Sanguine(Confident/Positive) temperament personality is fairly extroverted. People of a sanguine temperament tend to enjoy social gatherings, making new friends and tend to be quite loud. They are usually quite creative and often daydream. However, some alone time is crucial(Searching) for those of this temperament. Sanguine can also mean very sensitive, compassionate and thoughtful. Sanguine personalities generally struggle with following tasks all the way through, are chronically late, and tend to be forgetful and sometimes a little sarcastic(Convey Contempt). Often, when pursuing a new hobby, interest is lost quickly when it ceases(Come) to be engaging or fun. They are very much people persons. They are talkative and not shy. Sanguine can be sometimes emotional. Eg. The Performers, The Promoters, The Composers, The Crafters 2.Choleric(Irritable)(Rationals):-A person who is choleric is a do-er. They have a lot of ambition, energy, and passion, and try to instill it in others. They can dominate people of other temperaments, especially phlegmatic (Unemotional Person)types. Many great charismatic (exercising a compelling charm which inspires devotion in others)military and political figures were choleric. They like to be leaders and in charge of everything.

Eg. The Field Marshalls , The Inventors ,The Masterminds, The Architects . 3. Melancholic(a feeling of pensive sadness )(Idealists):- A person who is a thoughtful ponderer has a melancholic disposition. Often very considerate and get rather worried when they could not be on time for events, melancholics can be highly creative in activities such as poetry and art - and can become occupied with the tragedy(A Drama) and cruelty (Remark)in the world. A melancholic is also often a perfectionist. They are often self-reliant and independent; one negative part of being a melancholic is sometimes they can get so involved in what they are doing they forget to think of others. Eg. The Teachers, The Champions,The Counselors, The Healers 4.Phlegmatic(Unemotional Person )(Guardians):- Phlegmatics tend to be self-content and kind. They can be very accepting and affectionate. They may be very receptive and shy and often prefer stability to uncertainty and change. They are very consistent, relaxed, calm, rational, curious, and observant, making them good administrators. They can also be very passiveaggressive. Eg. The Supervisors, The Providers ,The Inspectors ,The Protectors.

3.Diff Btwn Extraverted and Introverted:Extraverted 1.psychic energy is directed out of the person to the world outside them. objective - outward 2. an extravert attitude is motivated from the outside and is directed by external, objective factors and relationships" (Hyde). 3. behaviour directed externally, to influence outside factors and events" (Benziger) 4. are interested in what is happening around them and are open and often talkative . 5. compare their own opinions with the opinions of others and like action and initiative . 6. easily make new friends or adapt to a new group and say what they think . 7. are interested in new people and easily break unwanted relation Introverted 1. the person's psychic energy is internally directed . subjective - inward 2. an introvert is motivated from within and directed by inner, subjective matters" (Hyde) 3. behaviour directed inwardly to understand and manage self and experience" (Benziger) 4. are interested in their own thoughts and feelings and need to have own territory. 5. often appear reserved, quiet and thoughtful And usually do not have many friends . 6. have difficulties in making new contacts and like concentration and quiet 7. do not like unexpected visits and therefore do not make them and work well alone

4.Jung's psychological types - the 'four functional types:A. Thinking:- Thinking is an ability to deal with information on the basis of its structure and its function.

     

are interested in systems, structures, patterns expose everything to logical analysis . are relatively cold and unemotional evaluate things by intellect and right or wrong have difficulties talking about feelings do not like to clear up arguments or quarrels

B.feeling:- Feeling is an ability to deal with information on the basis of its initial energetic condition and its interactions.  are interested in people and their feelings  easily pass their own moods to others  pay great attention to love and passion  evaluate things by ethics and good or bad  can be touchy or use emotional manipulation  often give compliments to please people C.Sensation:- Sensing is an ability to deal with information on the basis of its physical qualities and its affection by other information.  see everyone and sense everything  live in the here and now  quickly adapt to any situation  like pleasures based on physical sensation  are practical and active  are realistic and self-confident D.Intuition:- Intuition is an ability to deal with the information on the basis of its hidden potential and its possible existence.  are mostly in the past or in the future  worry about the future more than the present  are interested in everything new and unusual  do not like routine  are attracted more to the theory than the practice  often have doubts E.Perceiving:- Perceiving types are motivated into activity by the changes in a situation.  act impulsively following the situation  can start many things at once without finishing them properly  prefer to have freedom from obligations  are curious and like a fresh look at things  work productivity depends on their mood  often act without any preparation F.Judging:- Judging types are motivated into activity by their decisions resulting from the changes in a situation.  do not like to leave unanswered questions  plan work ahead and tend to finish it

 do not like to change their decisions  have relatively stable workability  easily follow rules and discipline Myers briggs:G.Expressive:- Individuals who primarily say and do before they listen and watch are described as expressive H. Reserved:- People Who Primarily Listen And Watch Before They Say And Do Are Described As Reserved I.Observant:- When people touch objects, watch a basketball game, taste food, or otherwise perceive the world through their five senses, they are observant. People who are generally observant are more 'down to earth.' They are more concrete in their worldview and tend to focus on practical matters such as food, shelter, and their immediate relationships. J.Introspective:- When people reflect and focus on their internal world, they are introspective. People who are generally introspective are more 'head in the clouds.' They are more abstract in their world view and tend to focus on global or theoretical issues such as equality or engineering. K.Tough-minded:- The Tou gh-minded are often accused of being "inhuman," "heartless," "stony-hearted," "remote," of having 'ice in their veins," and of living "without the milk of human kindness." L.Friendly:- The Friendly are chided for being "too soft-hearted," "too emotional," "bleedinghearts," "muddleheaded," "fuzzy-thinkers," and for "wearing their heart on their sleeve 5. Interpersonal Relations:Interpersonal relations at work (and away, too) serve a critical role in the development and maintenance of trust and positive feelings in a farm organization. Although the quality of interpersonal relationships alone is not enough to produce worker productivity, it can significantly contribute to it. 6.Interpersonal Communication In order to have an effective communication,keep these points in mind:1.Clarity:- "Getting things straight" is a difficult communication task; yet people must communicate clearly with each other in order to receive information to accomplish the mundane(Excitement) tasks of life and to experience the depths of dialogue with another person. Fortunately, absolute clarity is unnecessary; effective communication is accomplished when the amount of clarity or accuracy achieved is sufficient for handling each situation adequately. 2.Objective:- Intended goals of an advertising or promotional program. Possible communications objectives include (1) creating awareness, (2) imparting knowledge, (3) projecting an image, (4) shaping attitudes, (5) stimulating a want or desire, and/or (6) effecting a sale.

3.Understanding:- Understanding (also called intellection) is a psychological process related to an abstract or physical object, such as a person, situation, or message whereby one is able to think about it and use concepts to deal adequately with that object. Understanding is a relation between the knower and an object of understanding. Understanding implies abilities and dispositions with respect to an object of knowledge sufficient to support intelligent behavior 4.Consistency:- In all of our communications we want to strive to send consistent verbal, paraverbal and nonverbal messages. When our messages are inconsistent, the listener may become confused. Inconsistency can also create a lack of trust and undermine the chance to build a good working relationship. 5.Completeness:- Completeness offers various benefits. It helps in bringing out the desired results without extra cost other number of messages. It also helps in building goodwill and a sense of concern for other party as both the reader and sender may have different background, culture, viewpoint, needs and experience. 6.Feedback:- The definition of feedback in organizations and business is ongoing, open twoway communication between two or more parties. Typically, feedback is given in annual performance reviews, but the best feedback is timely, honest, and provides useful comments and suggestions that contribute to a positive outcome, a better process or improved behaviours. 7.Time:-Time communications is any mode of telecommunications in which all users can exchange information instantly or with negligible latency. In Time Communication, there is always a direct path between the source and the destination. Although the link might contain several intermediate nodes, the data goes from source to destination without having to be stored anyplace. 7. Four Principles of Interpersonal Communication. 1.Interpersonal communication is inescapable:- We can't not communicate. The very attempt not to communicate communicates something. Through not only words, but through tone of voice and through gesture, posture, facial expression, etc., we constantly communicate to those around us. Through these channels, we constantly receive communication from others. Even when you sleep, you communicate. Remember a basic principle of communication in general: people are not mind readers. Another way to put this is: people judge you by your behaviour, not your intent. 2.Interpersonal communication is irreversible:- You can't really take back something once it has been said. The effect must inevitably remain. Despite the instructions from a judge to a jury to "disregard that last statement the witness made," the lawyer knows that it can't help but make an impression on the jury. A Russian proverb says, "Once a word goes out of your mouth, you can never swallow it again." 3.Interpersonal communication is complicated:- No form of communication is simple. Because of the number of variables involved, even simple requests are extremely complex. Theorists note that whenever we communicate there are really at least six "people" involved: 1) who you think you are

2) who you think the other person is 3) who you think the other person thinks you are; 4) who the other person thinks /she is; 5) who the other person thinks you are; and 6) who the other person thinks you think she/he is. 4.Interpersonal communication is contextual:- In other words, communication does not happen in isolation. There is: Psychological context, which is who you are and what you bring to the interaction. Your needs, desires, values, personality, etc., all form the psychological context. ("You" here refers to both participants in the interaction.) Relational context, which concerns your reactions to the other person--the "mix." Situational context deals with the psycho-social "where" you are communicating. An interaction that takes place in a classroom will be very different from one that takes place in a bar Environmental context deals with the physical "where" you are communicating. Furniture, location, noise level, temperature, season, time of day, all are examples of factors in the environmental context. Cultural context includes all the learned behaviors and rules that affect the interaction. If you come from a culture (foreign or within your own country) where it is considered rude to make long, direct eye contact, you will out of politeness avoid eye contact. If the other person comes from a culture where long, direct eye contact signals trustworthiness, then we have in the cultural context a basis for misunderstanding.

Transactional Analysis Structural Model

Parent ego state This is a set of feelings, thinking and behaviour that we have copied from our parents and significant others. As we grow up we take in ideas, beliefs, feelings and behaviours from our parents and caretakers. If we live in an extended family then there are more people to learn and take in from. When we do this, it is called introjecting and it is just as if we take in the whole of the care giver. For example, we may notice that we are saying things just as our father, mother, grandmother may have done, even though, consciously, we don't want to. We do this as we have lived with this person so long that we automatically reproduce certain things that were said to us, or treat others as we might have been treated.

Adult ego state The Adult ego state is about direct responses to the here and now. We deal with things that are going on today in ways that are not unhealthily influenced by our past. The Adult ego state is about being spontaneous and aware with the capacity for intimacy. When in our Adult we are able to see people as they are, rather than what we project onto them. We ask for information rather than stay scared and rather than make assumptions. Taking the best from the past and using it appropriately in the present is an integration of the positive aspects of both our Parent and Child ego states. So this can be called the Integrating Adult. Integrating means that we are constantly updating ourselves through our every day experiences and using this to inform us. In this structural model, the Integrating Adult ego state circle is placed in the middle to show how it needs to orchestrate between the Parent and the Child ego states. For example, the internal Parent ego state may beat up on the internal Child, saying "You are no good, look at what you did wrong again, you are useless". The Child may then respond with "I am no good, look how useless I am, I never get anything right". Many people hardly hear this kind of internal dialogue as it goes on so much they might just believe life is this way. An effective Integrating Adult ego state can intervene between the Parent and Child ego states. This might be done by stating that this kind of parenting is not helpful and asking if it is prepared to learn another way. Alternatively, the Integrating Adult ego state can just stop any negative dialogue and decide to develop another positive Parent ego state perhaps taken in from other people they have met over the years. Child ego state The Child ego state is a set of behaviours, thoughts and feelings which are replayed from our own childhood. Perhaps the boss calls us into his or her office, we may immediately get a churning in our stomach and wonder what we have done wrong. If this were explored we might remember the time the head teacher called us in to tell us off. Of course, not everything in the Child ego state is negative. We might go into someone's house and smell a lovely smell and remember our grandmother's house when we were little, and all the same warm feelings we had at six year's of age may come flooding back. Both the Parent and Child ego states are constantly being updated. For example, we may meet someone who gives us the permission we needed as a child, and did not get, to be fun and joyous. We may well use that person in our imagination when we are stressed to counteract our old ways of thinking that we must work longer and longer hours to keep up with everything. We might ask ourselves "I wonder what X would say now". Then on hearing the new permissions to relax and take some time out, do just that and then return to the work renewed and ready for the challenge. Subsequently, rather than beating up on ourselves for what we did or did not do, what tends to happen is we automatically start to give ourselves new permissions and take care of ourselves.

Alternatively, we might have had a traumatic experience yesterday which goes into the Child ego state as an archaic memory that hampers our growth. Positive experiences will also go into the Child ego state as archaic memories. The positive experiences can then be drawn on to remind us that positive things do happen. The process of analysing personality in terms of ego states is called structural analysis. It is important to remember that ego states do not have an existence of their own, they are concepts to enable understanding. Therefore it is important to say "I want some fun" rather than "My Child wants some fun". We may be in our Child ego state when we say this, but saying "I" reminds us to take responsibility for our actions.

8. Definition of a Group A group is: A group is a two or more individual who interact regularly with each other to accomplish a common purpose or goal. According to Marvin Shaw, "a group comprises, of two or more persons who interact with one another in such a manner that each person influences and is influenced by each other person'. 9.Group Formation According to Tuckman's theory, there are five stages of group development: forming, storming, norming, performing, and adjourning. 1.Forming. This is the initial stage when the group comes together and members begin to develop their relationship with one another and learn what is expected of them.This is the stage when team building begins and trust starts to develop. Group members will start establishing limits on acceptable behavior through experimentation. Other members reactions will determine if a behavior will be repeated. This is also the time when the tasks of the group and the members will be decided. 2.Storming:- During this stage of group development, interpersonal conflicts arise and differences of opinion about the group and its goals will surface. If the group is unable to clearly state its purposes and goals or if it cannot agree on shared goals, the group may collapse at this point. It is important to work through the conflict at this time and to establish clear goals. It is necessary for there to be discussion so everyone feels heard and can come to an agreement on the direction the group is to move in. 3.Norming:- Once the group resolves its conflicts, it can now establish patterns of how to get its work done. Expectations of one another are clearly articulated and accepted by members of the group. Formal and informal procedures are established in delegating tasks, responding to questions, and in the process by which the group functions. Members of the group come to understand how the group as a whole operates.

4.Performing:- During this stage of development, issues related to roles, expectations, and norms are no longer of major importance. The group is now focused on its task, working intentionally and effectively to accomplish its goals. The group will find that it can celebrate its accomplishments and that members will be learning new skills and sharing roles. When conflict arises in a group, do not try to silence the conflict or to run from it. Let the conflict come out into the open so people can discuss it. If the conflict is kept under the surface, members will not be able to build trusting relationships and this could harm the groups effectiveness. If handled properly, the group will come out of the conflict with a stronger sense of cohesiveness then before. 5.Adjourning:- This is the last stage of group development for temporary groups that have only a specific task to perform (like task groups, interest groups, or temporary committees). In this stage, the members are concerned with finishing their activities (priority is not given to high task performance). The feelings of members vary at this stage. While some may be happy about the group's accomplishments others may be depressed that they would be losing their friends after the group is disbanded. Group Types One common way to classify group is by whether they are formal or informal in nature. Formal work groups are established by an organization to achieve organizational goals. Formal groups may take the form of command groups, task groups, and functional groups. Command Groups Command groups are specified by the organizational chart and often consist of a supervisor and the subordinates that report to that supervisor. An example of a command group is an academic department chairman and the faculty members in that department. Task Groups Task groups consist of people who work together to achieve a common task. Members are brought together to accomplish a narrow range of goals within a specified time period. Task groups are also commonly referred to as task forces. The organization appoints members and assigns the goals and tasks to be accomplished. Examples of assigned tasks are the development of a new product, the improvement of a production process, or the proposal of a motivational contest. Other common task groups are ad hoc committees, project groups, and standing committees. Ad hoc committees are temporary groups created to resolve a specific complaint or develop a process. Project groups are similar to ad hoc committees and normally disband after the group completes the assigned task. Standing committees are more permanent than ad hoc committees and project groups. They maintain longer life spans by rotating members into the group. Functional Groups A functional group is created by the organization to accomplish specific goals within an unspecified time frame. Functional groups remain in existence after achievement of current goals and objectives. Examples of functional groups would be a marketing department, a customer service department, or an accounting department. In contrast to formal groups, informal groups are formed naturally and in response to the common interests and shared values of individuals. They are created for purposes other than the accomplishment of organizational goals and do not have a specified time frame. Informal groups are not appointed by the organization and members

can invite others to join from time to time. Informal groups can have a strong influence in organizations that can either be positive or negative. For example, employees who form an informal group can either discuss how to improve a production process or how to create shortcuts that jeopardize quality. Informal groups can take the form of interest groups, friendship groups, or reference groups. Interest Groups Interest groups usually continue over time and may last longer than general informal groups. Members of interest groups may not be part of the same organizational department but they are bound together by some other common interest. The goals and objectives of group interests are specific to each group and may not be related to organizational goals and objectives. An example of an interest group would be students who come together to form a study group for a specific class. Friendship Groups Friendship groups are formed by members who enjoy similar social activities, political beliefs, religious values, or other common bonds. Members enjoy each other's company and often meet after work to participate in these activities. For example, a group of employees who form a friendship group may have an exercise group, a softball team, or a potluck lunch once a month. Group Structure Group structure is a pattern of relationships among members that hold the group together and help it achieve assigned goals. Structure can be described in a variety of ways. Among the more common considerations are group size, group roles, group norms, and group cohesiveness. Group Roles In formal groups, roles are usually predetermined and assigned to members. Each role will have specific responsibilities and duties. There are, however, emergent roles that develop naturally to meet the needs of the groups. These emergent roles will often replace the assigned roles as individuals begin to express themselves and become more assertive. Group roles can then be classified into work roles, maintenance roles, and blocking roles. Work Roles Work roles are task-oriented activities that involve accomplishing the groups goals. They involve a variety of specific roles such as initiator, informer, clarifier, summarizer, and reality tester. The initiator defines problems, proposes action, and suggests procedures. The informer role involves finding facts and giving advice or opinions. Clarifiers will interpret ideas, define terms, and clarify issues for the group. Summarizers restate suggestions, offer decisions, and come to conclusions for the group. Finally, reality testers analyze ideas and test the ideas in real situations. Maintenance Roles Maintenance roles are social-emotional activities that help members maintain their involvement in the group and raise their personal commitment to the group. The maintenance roles are harmonizer, gatekeeper, consensus tester, encourager, and compromiser. The harmonizer will reduce tension in the group, reconcile differences, and explore opportunities. Gatekeepers often

keep communication channels open and make suggestions that encourage participation. The consensus tester will ask if the group is nearing a decision and test possible conclusions. Encouragers are friendly, warm, and responsive to other group members. The last maintenance role is the compromiser. This role involves modifying decisions, offering compromises, and admitting errors. Blocking Roles Blocking roles are activities that disrupt the group. They make take the form of dominating discussions, verbally attacking other group members, and distracting the group with trivial information or unnecessary humour. Often times the blocking behaviour may not be intended as negative. Sometimes a member may share a joke in order to break the tension, or may question a decision in order to force group members to rethink the issue. The blocking roles are aggressor, blocker, dominator, comedian, and avoidance behaviour. The aggressor criticizes members' values and makes jokes in a sarcastic or semi-concealed manner. Blockers will stubbornly resist the group's ideas, disagree with group members for personal reasons, and will have hidden agendas. The dominator role attempts to control conversations by patronizing others. They often interrupt others and assert authority in order to manipulate members. Comedians often abandon the group even though they may physically still be a part. They are attention-getters in ways that are not relevant to the accomplishment of the group's objectives. The last blocking role, avoidance behaviour, involves pursuing goals not related to the group and changing the subject to avoid commitment to the group.

Role Ambiguity Role ambiguity concerns the discrepancy between the sent role and the received role.Supervisors, directors, or other group leaders often send (assign) roles to group members in formal groups. Group members receive roles by being ready and willing to undertake the tasks associated with that role. Ambiguity results when members are confused about the delegation of job responsibilities. This confusion may occur because the members do not have specific job descriptions or because the instructions regarding the task were not clear. Group members who experience ambiguity often have feelings of frustration and dissatisfaction, which ultimately lead to turnover. Role Conflict Role conflict occurs when there is inconsistency between the perceived role and role behaviour. There are several different forms of role conflict. Inter role conflict occurs when there is conflict between the different roles that people have. For example, work roles and family roles often compete with one another and cause conflict. Intra role conflict occurs when individuals must handle conflicting demands from different sources while performing the tasks associated with the same role. Group Norms Norms are acceptable standards of behaviour within a group that are shared by the members of the group. Norms define the boundaries of acceptable and unacceptable behaviour. They are typically created in order to facilitate group survival, make behaviour more predictable, avoid

embarrassing situations, and express the values of the group. Each group will establish its own set of norms that might determine anything from the appropriate dress to how many comments to make in a meeting. Groups exert pressure on members to force them to conform to the group's standards. The norms often reflect the level of commitment, motivation, and performance of the group. It should be noted, however, that members might violate group norms from time to time. If the majority of members do not adhere to the norms, then they will eventually change and will no longer serve as a standard for evaluating behaviour. Group members who do not conform to the norms will be punished by being excluded, ignored, or asked to leave the group. Group Cohesiveness Cohesiveness refers to the bonding of group members and their desire to remain part of the group. Many factors influence the amount of group cohesiveness. Generally speaking, the more difficult it is to obtain group membership the more cohesive the group. Groups also tend to become cohesive when they are in intense competition with other groups or face a serious external threat to survival. Smaller groups and those who spend considerable time together also tend to be more cohesive. Cohesiveness in work groups has many positive effects, including worker satisfaction, low turnover and absenteeism, and higher productivity. However, highly cohesive groups may be detrimental to organizational performance if their goals are misaligned with organizational goals. Highly cohesive groups may also be more vulnerable to groupthink. Groupthink occurs when members of a group exert pressure on each other to come to a consensus in decision making. Groupthink results in careless judgments, unrealistic appraisals of alternative courses of action, and a lack of reality testing. It can lead to a number of decision-making issues such as the following Incomplete assessments of the problem, Incomplete information search, Bias in processing information, Inadequate development of alternatives, and Failure to examine the risks of the preferred choice. Group Decision Making Group decision making is a type of participatory process in which multiple individuals acting collectively, analyze problems or situations, consider and evaluate alternative courses of action, and select from among the alternatives a solution or solutions. The number of people involved in group decision-making varies greatly, but often ranges from two to seven. The individuals in a group may be demographically similar or quite diverse. Decision-making groups may be relatively informal in nature, or formally designated and charged with a specific goal. The process used to arrive at decisions may be unstructured or structured. The nature and composition of groups, their size, demographic makeup, structure, and purpose, all affect their functioning to some degree. The external contingencies faced by groups (time pressure and conflicting goals) impact the development and effectiveness of decision-making groups as well. y The group has a definite leader, but the team has shared leadership roles y Members of a group have individual accountability; the team has both individual and collective accountability.

y y

The group measures effectiveness indirectly, but the team measures performance directly through their collective work product. The group discusses, decides, and delegates, but the team discusses, decides, and does real work. Advantages of Group Decision Making Group decision-making, ideally, takes advantage of the diverse strengths and expertise of its members. By tapping the unique qualities of group members, it is possible that the group can generate a greater number of alternatives that are of higher quality than the individual. If a greater number of higher quality alternatives are generated, then it is likely that the group will eventually reach a superior problem solution than the individual. Group decision-making may also lead to a greater collective understanding of the eventual course of action chosen, since it is possible that many affected by the decision implementation actually had input into the decision. This may promote a sense of "ownership" of the decision, which is likely to contribute to a greater acceptance of the course of action selected and greater commitment on the part of the affected individuals to make the course of action successful. Disadvantages of Group Decision Making Group polarization is another potential disadvantage of group decision-making. This is the tendency of the group to converge on more extreme solutions to a problem. The "risky shift" phenomenon is an example of polarization; it occurs when the group decision is a riskier one than any of the group members would have made individually. This may result because individuals in a group sometimes do not feel as much responsibility and accountability for the actions of the group as they would if they were making the decision alone. Decision-making in groups is a fact of organizational life for many individuals. Because so many individuals spend at least some of their work time in decision-making groups, groups are the subjects of hundreds of research studies each year. Despite this, there is still much to learn about the development and functioning of groups. Research is likely to continue to focus on identifying processes that will make group decision-making more efficient and effective. It is also likely to examine how the internal characteristics of groups (demographic and cognitive diversity) and the external contingencies faced by groups affect their functioning.

Def of leadership Leadership is the art of influencing and inspiring subordinates to perform their duties willingly, competently and enthusiastically for achievement of groups objectives. According to Wendell French, "Leadership is the process of influencing the behavior of others in the direction of a goal or set of goals or, more broadly, toward a vision of the future According to Keith Davis, Leadership is the process of encouraging and helping others to work enthusiastically towards objectives

Leadership Leadership is a matter of making a difference.

y It entails changing an organisation & making choices among plausible alternatives. y It depends on the development of others & mobilising them to get the job done y Leadership is a combination of persuasion & compulsion that results in making people do things they might not otherwise have done
Importance of leadership  The following points can judge the importance of leadership: y A leader should act as a friend of the people whom he is leading. y A leader must have the capacity to recognize the potentials of the individuals and transform them into realities. y A leader should have the confidence of the individuals of the organization. y A leader must be able to unite the people as a team and build up team spirit. y A leader should be able to maintain discipline among his group and develop a sense of responsibility. y A leader must be able to build up a high morale among the individuals of the organization. y A leader should motivate his people to achieve goals. y A leader should try to raise the morale of the individuals and should maintain ethical standards among the individuals. y A leader should act as a link between the work groups and the forces outside the organization. Leadership and Management  Leading and managing go together but some differences exist between the two. The following are the differences between the leadership and the management: y Management takes rational and logical decisions while leadership takes decision on expectations of the followers. Leadership has an emotional appeal while management acts on rationality. y The management establishes relationship through a lawful authority while leadership establishes relationship through power. y Managers have formal authority but the leaders have no such authority. y All leaders are not managers and all managers are leaders. y Management is a process of planning, organizing, directing and controlling the activities of others to attain the organizational objectives. Leadership on the other hand, is a process of influencing the behavior of the people to attain their assigned tasks. A successful manager must possess both the managerial and leadership qualities.

Managers versus Leaders

Managers y Administer y Maintain y Focus on systems & structure y Rely on control y Keep an eye on the bottom line y Do things right Leaders y Innovate y Develop y Focus on people y Inspire trust y Have an eye on the horizon y Do the right thing

The interrelationship between management & leadership

y Leadership and management are closely inter-related; how to get things done through people and how to make work an enjoyable experience

Managerial leadership framework

y y y y y y y Qualities or traits approach The functional or group approach Leadership as a behavioural category Styles of leadership The situational approach & contingency models Transitional or transformational leadership Inspirational leadership

Action-centred leadership Task functions

y identify aims and vision for the group, purpose, and direction - define the activity (the task)

y y y y y y y y

identify resources, people, processes, systems and tools (inc. financials, communications, IT) create the plan to achieve the task - deliverables, measures, timescales, strategy and tactics establish responsibilities, objectives, accountabilities and measures, by agreement and delegation set standards, quality, time and reporting parameters control and maintain activities against parameters monitor and maintain overall performance against plan report on progress towards the group's aim review, re-assess, adjust plan, methods and targets as necessary

Action-centred leadership Team functions

y y y y y y y y y y y y establish, agree and communicate standards of performance and behavior establish style, culture, approach of the group - soft skill elements monitor and maintain discipline, ethics, integrity and focus on objectives anticipate and resolve group conflict, struggles or disagreements assess and change as necessary the balance and composition of the group develop team-working, cooperation, morale and team-spirit develop the collective maturity and capability of the group - progressively increase group freedom and authority encourage the team towards objectives and aims - motivate the group and provide a collective sense of purpose identify, develop and agree team- and project-leadership roles within group enable, facilitate and ensure effective internal and external group communications identify and meet group training needs give feedback to the group on overall progress; consult with, and seek feedback and input from the group

Action-centred leadership Individual functions

y y y y y y y y understand the team members as individuals - personality, skills, strengths, needs, aims and fears assist and support individuals - plans, problems, challenges, highs and lows identify and agree appropriate individual responsibilities and objectives give recognition and praise to individuals - acknowledge effort and good work where appropriate reward individuals with extra responsibility, advancement and status identify, develop and utilise each individual's capabilities and strengths train and develop individual team members develop individual freedom and authority

Two major dimensions of leadership behaviour

y Consideration reflects the extent to which the leader establishes trust, mutual respect & rapport with the group & shows concern, warmth, support, & consideration for subordinates Structure reflects the extent to which the leader defines & structures group interactions towards the attainment of formal goals

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs(Imp)

Maslow Abraham proposed his theory in the 1940s. This theory, popularly known as the Hierarchy of Needs assumes that people are motivated to satisfy five levels of needs: physiological, security, belongingness, esteem and self-actualization needs.

1.Physiological Needs These include the most basic needs that are vital to survival, such as the need for water, air, food and sleep. Maslow believed that these needs are the most basic and instinctive needs in the hierarchy because all needs become secondary until these physiological needs are met. 2.Security Needs These include needs for safety and security. Security needs are important for survival, but they are not as demanding as the physiological needs. Examples of security needs include a desire for steady employment, health insurance, safe neighborhoods and shelter from the environment. 3.Social Needs These include needs for belonging, love and affection. Maslow considered these needs to be less basic than physiological and security needs. Relationships such as friendships, romantic attachments and families help fulfill this need for companionship and acceptance, as does involvement in social, community or religious groups 4.Esteem Needs After the first three needs have been satisfied, esteem needs becomes increasingly important. These include the need for things that reflect on self-esteem, personal worth, social recognition and accomplishment. 5.Self-actualizing Needs This is the highest level of Maslows hierarchy of needs. Self-actualizing people are self-aware, concerned with personal growth, less concerned with the opinions of others and interested fulfilling their potential

Motivators:y y Achievement Recognition

y y y y y y y y y y y y y y

Advancement The work itself The possibility of personal growth Responsibility Company policies Technical supervision Interpersonal relations with supervisor Interpersonal relations with peers Interpersonal relations with subordinates Salary Job security Personal life Work conditions Status

Hygiene or Maintenance Factors

'X' AND Y' THEORIES OF MOTIVATION

Douglas McGregor observed two diametrically opposing viewpoints of managers 'about their employees; one is negative called "Theory of X" and another is positive called "Theory of Y". I

Theory of X
Following are the assumptions of managers who believe in the "Theory of X" regarding their employees. y y y y Employees dislike work. Employees must be coerced, controlled or threatened to do the work. Employees avoid responsibilities and seek formal direction. Most employees consider security of job, most important of all other factors in the job and have very little ambition.

Theory of Y
Following are the assumptions of managers who believe in the "Theory of Y" regarding their employees. y Employees love work as play or rest. y Employees are self-directed and self-controlled and committed to the organizational objectives. y Employees accept and seek responsibilities. y Innovative spirit is not confined to managers alone, some employees also possess it.

Applicability of Theories 'X' and 'Y'

Theory 'X' in its applicability, places exclusive reliance upon external control of human behavior, while theory 'Y', relies heavily on self-control -and self-direction. y Theory 'X' points to the traditional approach of management. Literally, this theory of behavior is related to organizations that lay hard and rigid standards of work-behavior. Some examples of such organizations are organizations that break down jobs into specialized elements, establish 'norms of production, design equipment to control worker's pace of work, have rigid rules and regulations, that are sometimes very vigorously enforced. y Theory 'Y, on the other hand, secures the commitment of employees to organizational objectives. This motivational theory places emphasis on satisfaction of employees. While applying this theory, the use of authority, as an instrument of command and control is minimal. Employees exercise self-direction and self-control.

Path goal theory of leadership

The path-goal model of leadership was introduced by Martin Evans and Robert House. Path-goal theory says that a leader can motivate subordinates by influencing their expectations. Leaders can motivate sub-ordinates by making clear what they have to do to get the reward they desire. The path-goal model assumes that leaders can change their style or behavior to meet the demands of a particular situation. This model identifies four kinds of leader behavior: directive, supportive, participative and achievement-oriented. According to this model managers can adjust their behavior to include any four kinds of leadership behavior mentioned above. For instance, while leading a new group of sub-ordinates, the leader may be directive in giving guidance and instructions to them. He may also adopt supportive behavior to encourage group cohesiveness, to look after their needs and ensuring that they get the rewards and benefits. As the group becomes more familiar with the task and as new problems are taken into consideration, the leader may use participative behavior by which he can participate with employees in making decisions and take their suggestions as well. Finally, the leader may use achievement-oriented behavior to encourage continued high performance of sub-ordinates.

Environmental characteristics are factors, which are beyond the control of subordinates. It includes task structure, the primary work group and the formal authority system. For instance, when structure is high, directive leadership is less effective than when structure is low. Subordinates do not usually need their boss to repeatedly tell them how to do a routine job. According to the path-goal theory, these environmental factors can create uncertainty for employees. A leader who helps employees reduce such uncertainty can motivate them.

Broad classification of leadership style

1.Authoritarian (autocratic) style:In this type of leadership, there is a complete centralization of authority in the leader, i.e., authority is centered in the leader himself. He has all the powers to make decisions. He uses coercive measures and adopts, negative method of motivation. He wants immediate obedience of his orders and instructions. Any negligence on the part of subordinates results in punishment. There is no participation from the subordinates in decision-making. A leader thinks that he is the only competent person in the organization. According to Edwin B. Filippo, there are following three types of leaders in autocratic: 1. Hard Boiled or Strict Autocrat: Leader, under such type uses negative influence and expects that the employees should obey his orders immediately. Non-compliance of his orders results in punishment. He makes all decisions and does not disclose anything to anyone. He is quite rigid on performance. Benevolent Autocrat: Benevolent autocrat leader uses positive influences and develops effective human relations. He is known as paternalistic leader. He praises his employees if they follow his orders and invites them to get the solutions of the problems from him. He feels happy in controlling all the actions of his subordinates. Manipulative Autocrat: Leader, under such type is manipulative in nature. He creates a feeling in the minds of his subordinates and workers that they are participating in decision-making processes. But he makes all decisions by himself. Non-compliance of his orders also results in punishment.

2.

3.

2.Democratic style:- Democratic or Participative leadership is also known as group centered or consultative leadership. In this type of leadership, leaders consult their groups and consider their opinion in the decision-making process. Leaders encourage discussion among the group members on the problem under consideration and arrive at a decision depending on their consent. Participation or involvement of the employees in the decision-making process is also rewarded. Exchange of ideas among subordinates and with the leader is given encouragement. Leaders give more freedom to their group members, who feel that, their opinions arc honored and they are given importance. It develops a sense of confidence among subordinates and they derive job satisfaction. It improves quality of decision as it is taken after due consideration of valued opinions of the talented group members.

The demerit of this type of leadership is that it takes more time to arrive at a decision, as a lot of time is wasted while taking the views from the employee. It is, therefore, very time consuming. 3.Laissez-faire (genuine) style:- In this type of leadership, there is virtual absence of direct leadership. It is, therefore, known as "no leadership at all". There is complete delegation of authority to subordinates so that they can make decisions by themselves. Absence of leadership may have both positive and negative effects. Free rein leadership may be effective if members of the group are highly committed to their work. The negative aspect shows that the leader is not competent enough to lead his group effectively. Members may feel insecure and develop frustration for lack of decision-making authority.

Main forces in deciding type of leadership

1.Forces in the manager:y Belief in team member y Participation and Confidence in capabilities of members. y Value systems y Confidence in subordinates y Leadership inclinations y Feelings of security in an uncertain situation 2.Forces in the subordinate:y Subordiante who are independent y Tolerant of ambiguity y Competent y Identify with organizational goal. y Strength of the needs for independence y Readiness to assume responsibility for decision-making y Degree of tolerance for ambiguity y Interest in the problem & feelings as to its importance y Understanding & identification with the goals of the organisation y Necessary knowledge & experience to deal with the problem y The extent of learning to expect to share in decision- making 3.Forces in the situation:y Team has requisite knowledge y Team hold organisational values and traditional. y Team works effectively y Type of organisation y Group effectiveness y Nature of the problem y Pressure of time

Transformational leadership
y y y y A process of engendering higher levels of motivation & commitment among followers Emphasis is on generating a vision for the organisation, the leaders ability to appeal to higher ideals & values of followers, & creating a feeling of justice, loyalty & trust Is about transforming the performance or fortunes of a business

The right leader for the right situation

Organisations that exist in a dynamic environment generally require three types of leaders  Innovator:- Innovation and leadership are closely related. Leadership always has some focus on bringing about a better future. In this sense, leaders are necessarily innovators. We would not normally consider a spectator of the status quo to be a leader.  Implementor :- Implementers are the project managers of the world. They get things done. They are efficient and focused. y Effective Implementer leaders are great project managers and they deliver results. They will accept personal responsibility for their results and the results of their team; they tend to focus resources wisely. They have clear meaningful targets and generally have metrics to assess performance.  Pacifier:- The Pacifier Has a positive attitude toward authority figures.Is willing to carry out administrative functions (willing to do thepaperwork).Is interested in friendly relationshipLikes to communicate and collaborate with employees (is sociallyoriented)Likes to improve the social atmosphere in the unit. y Makes decisions that keep everyone moderately happy.Makes decisions based on feedback from what others have decided.Allows employees to make may of the units decisions (delegatesdecision making).Accepts that decisions in the unit are not in harmony (individuals makeconflicting decisions)

Expectations for leaders of the future

y y y y Dream collectively Balance the short term with the longer term Build an organisation that values people Understand the reality of the organisation

New skills & competencies

y y y y The new leader understands & practises the power of appreciation The new leader keeps reminding people of what is important The new leader generates & sustains trust The new leader & the led are intimate allies

Power and Influence

 Power is the ability to y Get someone to do something you want done. y Make things happen in the way you want.

 Influence is:- a power to affect persons or events especially power based on prestige etc; "used her parents'' influence to get the job y What you have when you exercise power. y Expressed by others behavioral response to your exercise of power.

What is power? The ability to do something or act in a particular way

   y y y y y y  y y  y y  y y y  y y y y  y y y y  y y  y y Position power. Derives from organizational sources. Types of position power. Reward power. Coercive power. Legitimate power. Process power. Information power. Representative power Reward Power:The extent to which a manager can use extrinsic and intrinsic rewards to control other people. Success in accessing and utilizing rewards depends on managers skills. Coercive power:The extent to which a manager can deny desired rewards or administer punishments to control other people. Availability varies from one organization and manager to another. Legitimate power:Also known as formal hierarchical authority. The extent to which a manager can use subordinates internalized values or beliefs that the boss has a right of command to control their behavior. If legitimacy is lost, authority will not be accepted by subordinates. Process power:The control over methods of production and analysis. Places an individual in the position of: Influencing how inputs are transformed into outputs. Controlling the analytical process used to make choices. Information power. The access to and/or control of information. May complement legitimate hierarchical power. May be granted to specialists and managers in the middle of the information system. People may protect information in order to increase their power. Representative power. The formal right conferred by the firm to speak as a representative for a potentially important group composed of individuals across departments or outside the firm. Helps complex organizations deal with a variety of constituencies. Personal power:Derives from individual sources. Types of personal power.

    y

Expert power. Rational persuasion. Referent power. Expert power:The ability to control another persons behavior through the possession of knowledge, experience, or judgment that the other person needs but does not have. y Is relative, not absolute  Rational persuasion:y The ability to control another persons behavior by convincing the other person of the desirability of a goal and a reasonable way of achieving it. y Much of a supervisors daily activity involves rational persuasion  Referent power:y The ability to control anothers behavior because the person wants to identify with the power source. y Can be enhanced by linking to morality and ethics and long-term vision.

How do managers acquire the power needed for leadership?

 Acquiring and using power and influence. y A considerable portion of any managers time is directed toward power-oriented behavior. y Power-oriented behavior is action directed at developing or using relationships in which other people are willing to defer wholly or partially to ones wishes. y Acquiring and using power and influence. y Three dimensions of managerial power and influence. y Downward. y Upward. y Lateral. y Effective managers build and maintain position power and personal power to exercise downward, upward, and lateral influence.  Building position power by: y Increasing centrality and criticality in the organization. y Increasing task relevance of own activities and work units activities. y Attempting to define tasks so they are difficult to evaluate  Building personal power by: y Building expertise. Advanced training and education, participation in professional associations, and project involvement. y Learning political savvy. Learning ways to negotiate, persuade, and understand goals and means that others accept. y Enhancing likeability. Pleasant personality characteristics, agreeable behavior patterns, and attractive personal appearance.  Managers increase the visibility of their job performance by:

y y y y y  y y y y y y y

Expanding contacts with senior people. Making oral presentations of written work. Participating in problem-solving task forces. Sending out notices of accomplishment. Seeking opportunities to increase name recognition Common strategies for turning power into relational influence. Reason. Friendliness. Coalition. Bargaining. Assertiveness. Higher authority. Sanctions.

What is empowerment, and how can managers empower others?

 Empowerment:y The process by which managers help others to acquire and use the power needed to make decisions affecting themselves and their work. y Considers power to be something that can be shared by everyone working in flatter and more collegial organizations. y Provides the foundation for self-managing work teams and other employee involvement groups.  The power keys to empowerment:y Traditional view. y Power is relational in terms of individuals. y Empowerment view. y Emphasis is on the ability to make things happen. y Power is relational in terms of problems and opportunities, not individuals.  The power keys to empowerment:y Ways to empower others. y Changing position power. y Expanding the zone of indifference  Power as an expanding pie:y With empowerment, employees must be trained to expand their power and their new influence potential. y Empowerment changes the dynamics between supervisors and subordinate.  Ways to expand power:y Clearly define roles and responsibilities. y Provide opportunities for creative problem solving coupled with the discretion to act. y Emphasize different ways of exercising influence. y Provide support to individuals so they become comfortable with developing their power. y Expand inducements for thinking and acting, not just obeying.

What are organizational politics?

 Machiavellian tradition of organizational politics. y Emphasizes self-interest and the use of nonsanctioned means. y Organizational politics is defined as the management of influence to obtain ends not sanctioned by the organization or to obtain sanctioned ends through nonsanctioned influence means.  Alternate tradition of organizational politics. y Politics is a necessary function resulting from differences in the self-interests of individuals. y Politics is the art of creative compromise among competing interests. y Politics is the use of power to develop socially acceptable ends and means that balance individual and collective interests.  Positive aspects of organizational politics:y Overcoming personnel inadequacies. y Coping with change. y Substituting for formal authority.  Organizational politics and self-protection. y Common self-protection strategies. y Avoiding action and risk taking. y Redirecting accountability and responsibility. y Defending turf.  Common techniques for avoiding action and risk taking. y Working to the rule. y Playing dumb. y Depersonalization. y Stalling. y Routine. y Creative  Common techniques for redirecting accountability and responsibility. y Passing the buck. y Buffing (or rigorous documentation). y Rewriting history. y Scapegoating. y Blaming the problem on uncontrollable events. y Escalating commitment to a losing course of action.  Common techniques for defending turf. y Expanding the jobs performed by the work unit. y Forming and using coalitions.

How do organizational politics affect managers and management?

 Managers may gain a better understanding of political behavior by placing themselves in the positions of other persons involved in critical decisions or events.  This understanding can be facilitated with the use of a payoff matrix analysis

Can the firm use politics strategically?

  y y y  y y  y y y  y There is growing awareness of the importance of political strategy for business firms. In the United States, corporate political strategy advises managers to: Engage in the public political process. Turn the government from an industry regulator to an industry protector. Decide when and how to get involved in the public policy process. Organizational governance. The pattern of authority, influence, and acceptable managerial behavior established at the top of the organization. Significantly determined by the effective control of key resources by members of a dominant coalition. Organizational governance implications. The daily practice of governance is the development and resolution of issues. Governance is becoming more public and open. Imbalanced governance by some U.S. corporations may limit their ability to manage global operations effectively. Organizational governance implications. While governance is often closely tied to the short-term interests of stockholders and pay of CEOs, some firms are expanding governance interests to include employees and communities. Governance should have an ethical basis. A persons behavior must satisfy the following criteria to be ethical: The behavior must produce the greatest good for the greatest number of people. The behavior must respect the rights of all affected parties. The behavior must respect the rules of justice. CEOs and employees may justify unethical actions by suggesting that the behavior: Is not really illegal and so could be moral. Appears to be in the firms best interest. Is unlikely to be detected. Demonstrates loyalty.

y  y y y  y y y y

What is conflict?
 Conflict occurs whenever: y Disagreements exist in a social situation over issues of substance. y Emotional antagonisms cause frictions between individuals or groups.

Types of conflict
 Substantive conflict. y A fundamental disagreement over ends or goals to be pursued and the means for their accomplishment.  Emotional conflict. y Interpersonal difficulties that arise over feelings of anger, mistrust, dislike, fear, resentment, etc.

Levels of conflict.
Intrapersonal conflicts. Actual or perceived pressures from incompatible goals or expectations. Approach-approach conflict. Avoidance-avoidance conflict. Approach-avoidance conflict Interpersonal conflict. Occurs between two or more individuals who are in opposition to one another. Intergroup conflict. Occurs among members of different teams or groups. Inter organizational conflict. Occurs in the competition and rivalry that characterize firms operating in the same markets. y Occurs between unions and organizations employing their members. y Occurs between government regulatory agencies and organizations subject to their surveillance. y Occurs between organizations and suppliers of raw materials.  Functional (or constructive) conflict. y Results in positive benefits to individuals, the group, or the organization. y Likely effects. y Surfaces important problems so they can be addressed. y Causes careful consideration of decisions. y Causes reconsideration of decisions. y Increases information available for decision making. y Provides opportunities for creativity.  Dysfunctional (or destructive) conflict. y Works to the disadvantage of individuals, the group, or the organization. y Likely effects: y Diverts energies. y Harms group cohesion. y Promotes interpersonal hostilities. y Creates overall negative environment for workers.  y y y y y y y y  y

Culture and conflict

 y y y Conflict is likely to be high when: Persons from short-term cultures work with persons from long-term cultures. Persons from individualistic cultures work with persons from collectivistic cultures. Persons from high power distance cultures work with persons from low power distance cultures.

Causes of Conflict
 Causes of conflict.  Vertical conflict.

Occurs between hierarchical levels. Horizontal conflict. Occurs between persons or groups at the same hierarchical level. Line-staff conflict. Involves disagreements over who has authority and control over specific matters. Role conflicts. Occur when the communication of task expectations proves inadequate or upsetting. Work-flow interdependencies. Occur when people or units are required to cooperate to meet challenging goals. Domain ambiguities. Occur when individuals or groups are placed in ambiguous situations where it is difficult to determine who is responsible for what.  Resource scarcity. y When resources are scarce, working relationships are likely to suffer.  Power or value asymmetries. y Occur when interdependent people or groups differ substantially from one another in status and influence or in values. y  y  y  y  y  y

Conflict Management
 y y y Indirect conflict management approaches. Reduced interdependence. Appeals to common goals. Hierarchical referral.

Direct conflict management

 Direct conflict management approaches are based on the relative emphasis that a person places on assertiveness and cooperativeness.  Assertiveness. y Attempting to satisfy ones own concerns. y Unassertive versus assertive.  Cooperativeness. y Attempting to satisfy the other partys concern. y Uncooperative versus cooperative.

Avoidance.
 Unassertive and uncooperative.  Downplaying disagreement.  Failing to participate in the situation and/or staying neutral at all costs.  y y y Accommodation or smoothing. Unassertive and cooperative. Letting the others wishes rule. Smoothing over differences to maintain superficial harmony

 y y y

Compromise. Moderate assertiveness and moderate cooperativeness. Working toward partial satisfaction of everyones concerns. Seeking acceptable rather than optimal solutions so that no one totally wins or loses

 Competition and authoritative command. y Assertive and uncooperative. y Working against the wishes of the other party. Fighting to dominate in win/lose competition. y Forcing things to a favorable conclusion through the exercise of authority.  Collaboration and problem solving. y Assertive and cooperative. y Seeking the satisfaction of everyones concerns by working through differences. y Finding and solving problems so everyone gains as a result.

The issue of who wins?

 Lose-lose conflict. y Occurs when nobody gets what he or she wants.  Avoidance, accommodation or smoothing, and compromise are forms of lose-lose conflict.  Win-lose conflict. y One part achieves its desires at the expense and to the exclusion of the other partys desires. y Competition and authoritative command are forms of win-lose conflict.  Win-win conflict. y Both parties achieve their desires. y Collaboration or problem solving are forms of win-win conflict.

What is conflict negotiation?

Conflict negotiation is a back-and-forth communication process designed to anticipate, contain, and resolve disputes so that parties with some shared and some opposing interests can reach mutually acceptable solutions. Conflict negotiation refers to a voluntary, two-way communicationin which parties involved control both the process and the outcome. Conflict negotiation involves five key components: y The parties involved y The interests involved y The relationship between parties y Their interactions throughout the negotiation process y The results achieved.

Effective negotiation.
 Effective negotiation. Occurs when substance issues are resolved and working relationships are maintained or improved.  Criteria for an effective negotiation. y Quality. y Harmony. y Efficiency

Organizational settings for negotiation.

 Two-party negotiation:-The Manager negotiates directly with one other person.An example is a manager negotiating performance objective with subordinate.  Group negotiation:- The manager is a part of a team or group whose members are negotiating to arrive at a decision supported by all.A committee that must reach an agreement on recommending new sexual harassment policy is an example for group negotiation.  Intergroup negotiation:- The manager is a part of a group that is negotiating with another group to arrive at a decision regarding a problem or situation affecting both.An example could be negotiation between management group from two different firms to form a joint venture or strategic alliance  Constituency negotiation:-The manager is involved in negotiation with other people and each individual party represent a broad constituency.A team representing Management negotiating with a team representing Labour to arrive at a collective bargaining agreement could illustrate this.

What are the different strategies involved in negotiation?

 Distributive negotiation. y Focuses on positions staked out or declared by the conflicting parties. y Parties try to claim certain portions of the existing pie.  Integrative negotiation. y Sometimes called principled negotiation. y Focuses on the merits of the issues. y Parties try to enlarge the available pie.  Distributive negotiation. y The key questions is: Who is going to get this resource? Hard distributive negotiation. y Each party holds out to get its own way. Soft distributive negotiation. y One party is willing to make concessions to the other party to get things over.  Bargaining zone. y The range between one partys minimum reservation point and the other partys maximum reservation point. y A positive bargaining zone exists when the two parties points overlap. y A positive bargaining zone provides room for negotiation.

 Integrative negotiation. y The key questions is: How can the resource best be utilized? y Is less confrontational than distributive negotiation, and permits a broader range of alternative solutions to be considered. y Opportunity for a true win-win solution.  Range of feasible negotiation tactics. y Selective avoidance. y Compromise. y True collaboration  Gaining truly integrative agreements rests on: y Supportive attitudes. y Constructive behaviors. y Good information.  Constructive behaviors.  Reaching integrative agreements depends on the negotiators ability to: y Separate the people from the problem. y Focus on interests rather than positions. y Avoid making premature judgments. y Keep alternative creation separate from evaluation. y Judge possible agreements on an objective set of criteria or standards.

Good information.
y y Each negotiation party must know what he/she will do if an agreement cant be reached. Each party must understand the relative importance of the other partys interests.

 Third-party roles in negotiation.  Arbitration. y A third party acts as a judge and has the power to issue a decision that is binding on all disputing parties.  Mediation. y A neutral third party tries to engage the disputing parties in a negotiated solution through persuasion and rational argument.

Change and Stress

Change:- Change simply refers to alteration in the existing conditions of an organization. Even in most stable organizations change is necessary to maintain stability. The economic and social environment is so dynamic that without adapting to such change even the most successful organizations cannot survive in the changed environment. Therefore, management must continuously monitor the outside environment and be sufficiently innovative and creative to implement these changes effectively. Organizations encounter different forces for change. These forces come from external and internal sources of the organization.

Stress:- Stress is defined as "the reactions of individuals to new or threatening factors in their work environments. Stress can be either positive or negative. Some new work situations can bring us positive challenges and excitement. For example, promotions to new jobs present employees with positive stress. Employees may feel anxious about their new work assignments; they also anticipate them eagerly and look forward to the additional challenges, rewards, and excitement. In these cases, the new and uncertain job situations create positive stress. The positive stress is also called the eustress. However, there are certain other types of work that are very threatening and anxiety-arousing. For example, depression in the economy can create negative stress for sales personnel, because they will be much more anxious about making sales commissions and sales quotas.

Managing Planned Change

Forms of Resistance to Change

 y  y Overt and immediate Voicing complaints, engaging in job actions Implicit and deferred Loss of employee loyalty and motivation, increased errors or mistakes, increased absenteeism

Tactics for dealing with resistance to change  Education and communication:- Education And Communication Resistance can be reduced through communicating with employees to help them see the logic of a change. This tactic basically assumes that the source of resistance lies in misinformation or poor communication: If employees receive the full facts and get any misunderstandings cleared up, resistance will subside. Communication can be achieved through one-on-one discussions, memos, group presentations, or reports.
 Participation:- Participation It's difficult for individuals to resist a change decision in which they participated. Prior to making a change, those opposed can be brought into the decision process. Assuming that the participants have the expertise to make a meaningful contribution, their involvement can reduce resistance, obtain commitment, and increase the quality of the change decision. However, against these advantages are the negatives: potential for a poor solution and great time consumption.  Facilitation and support:- Facilitation And Support Change agents can offer a range of supportive efforts to reduce resistance. When employee fear and anxiety are high, employee counseling and therapy, new-skills training, or a short paid leave of absence may facilitate adjustment. The drawback of this tactic is that, as with the others, it is time-consuming. Additionally, it is expensive, and its implementation offers no assurance of success.  Negotiation:- Negotiation Another way for the change agent to deal with potential resistance to change is to exchange something of value for a lessening of the resistance. For instance, if the resistance is centered in a few powerful individuals, a specific reward package can be negotiated that will meet their individual needs. Negotiation as a tactic may be necessary when resistance comes from a powerful source. Yet one cannot ignore its potentially high costs. Additionally, there is the risk that, once a change agent negotiates with one party to avoid resistance, he or she is open to the possibility of being blackmailed by other individuals in positions of power.  Manipulation and cooptation:- Manipulation And Cooptation Manipulation refers to covert influence attempts. Twisting and distorting facts to make them appear more attractive, withholding undesirable information, and creating false rumors to get employees to accept a change are all examples of manipulation. If corporate management

threatens to close down a particular manufacturing plant if that plant's employees fail to accept an across-the-board pay cut, and if the threat is actually untrue, management is using manipulation. Cooptation, on the other hand, is a form of both manipulation and participation. It seeks to "buy off" the leaders of a resistance group by giving them a key role in the change decision. The leaders' advice is sought, not to seek a better decision, but to get their endorsement. Both manipulation and cooptation are relatively inexpensive and easy ways to gain the support of adversaries, but the tactics can backfire if the targets become aware that they are being tricked or used. Once discovered, the change agent's credibility may drop to zero.

 Coercion:- Coercion Last on the list of tactics is coercion; that is, the application of
direct threats or force upon the resisters. If the corporate management mentioned in the previous discussion really is determined to close a manufacturing plant if employees don't acquiesce to a pay cut, then coercion would be the label attached to its change tactic. Other examples of coercion are threats of transfer, loss of promotions,

negative performance evaluations, and a poor letter of recommendation. Lewins Three-Step Change Model
Stage 1: Unfreeze This stage involves creating the right conditions for change to occur. By resisting change, people often attach a sense of identity to their environment. In this state, alternatives, even beneficial ones, will initially cause discomfort. The challenge is to move people from this 'frozen' state to a 'change ready' or 'unfrozen' state. Stage 2: Transition The transitional 'journey' is central to Lewin's model and at the psychological level it is typically a period of confusion. People are aware that the old ways are being challenged, but there is no clear understanding of the new ways which will replace them. As roles change, a reduced state of efficiency is created, where goals are significantly lowered. Good leadership is important, and coaching, counseling or psychological support may be needed. The end goal of this stage is to get people to the 'unfrozen' state and keep them there. Stage 3: Refreeze The end goal of the model is to achieve a 'refreeze', re-establishing a new place of stability and elevate comfort levels by reconnecting people back into their safe, familiar environment. Refreezing takes people from a period of low productivity in the transitional state to a stable and productive state.

Kotters Eight-Step Plan for Implementing Change

y y y y Establish a sense of urgency by creating a compelling reason of why change is needed. Form a coalition with enough power to lead the change. Create a new vision to direct the change and strategies for achieving the vision. Communicate the vision throughout the organization.

y y y y

Empower others to act on the vision by removing barriers to change and encouraging risk taking and creative problem solving Plan for and create reward short term wins that move the organization toward the new vision. Consolidate improvements, reassess changes, and make necessary adjustments in the new program. Reinforce the changes by demonstrating the relationship between new behaviors and organizational success

Organizational Development
 Organizational Development (OD):y A long-term effort, led and supported by top management, to improve an organization's visioning, empowerment, learning, and problem-solving processes, through an ongoing, collaborative management of organizations culture with special emphasis on the culture of intact work teams and other team configurations utilizing the consultant facilitator role and the theory and technology of applied behavioral science, including action research.

Organizational Development Techniques

 Sensitivity Training:-Training groups (T-groups) that seek to change behavior through unstructured group interaction.Provides increased awareness of others and self.Increases empathy with others, improves listening skills, greater openness, and increased tolerance for others.  Survey Feedback: In survey feedback, data gathered through survey questionnaires and personal interviews are analyzed, tabulated into understandable form and shared with those who first supplied the information. Survey feedback lets people know where they stand in relation to others on important organizational issues thus helping them resolve conflicts in a constructive manner. Effective feedback should be relevant, understandable, descriptive, verifiable, and inspiring.  Team building: This technique is used to help work groups become effective in performing their tasks. The organizational development consultant helps in assessing group tasks, member roles, and strategies for accomplishing work tasks.  Team Building Activities: Goal and priority setting. Developing interpersonal relations. Role analysis to each members role and responsibilities. Team process analysis.

 Intergroup Development:-A major area of concern is OD is the dysfunctional conflict that exists between groups. As a result, this has been a subject to which change efforts

have been directed. It seeks to change to attitudes, stereotypes, and perceptions that groups have of each other.  y y y y Intergroup Problem Solving: Groups independently develop lists of perceptions. Share and discuss lists. Look for causes of misperceptions. Work to develop integrative solutions.

 Process Consultation (PC):- Process Consultation (PC) is the creation of a relationship with the client that permits the client to perceive, understand and act on the process events that occur in the clients internal and external environment in order to improve the situation as defined by the client.  Process Reengineering:- Starting all over Rethinking and redesigning organizational processes to produce more uniform products and services. Identifying the organizations distinctive competencieswhat it does best. Assessing core processes that add value to the organizations distinctive competencies. Reorganizing horizontally by process using cross-functional and self-managed teams.

Work Stress and Its Management

Stress:- Stress is defined as "the reactions of individuals to new or threatening factors in their work environments. Stress can be either positive or negative. Some new work situations can bring us positive challenges and excitement.

Potential Sources of Stress

 Environmental Factors:-Just as environmental uncertainty influences the design of an organizations structure, it also influences stress levels among employees in that organization. Changes in business cycle create y Economic uncertainties y Political uncertainties y Technological change y Terrorism  Organizational factors :y Task demands related to the job y Role demands of functioning in an organization y Interpersonal demands created by other employees  Individual Factors:y Family and personal relationships y Economic problems from exceeding earning capacity y Personality problems arising from basic disposition

 y y y y y

Individual Differences Perceptual variations of how reality will affect the individuals future Greater job experience moderates stress effects Social support buffers job stress Internal locus of control lowers perceived job stress Strong feelings of self-efficacy reduce reactions to job stress

Managing Stress
 Individual Approaches:y Take regular breaks during work to relax you. By effective time management, the employees can achieve their targets timely and can meet work pressures and, thus, avoid stress. y Do hard work. Strive to achieve your goals but do not do it to the harm of family, health, or peer. y Indulge in physical exercises. It helps in effective blood circulation, keeps you fit, diverts mind from work pressures. y Encourage a healthy lifestyle. Take a regular sleep, have plenty of water, have healthy eating habits. Promote relaxation techniques such as yoga, listening music and meditation. y The employees should have optimistic approach about their work. They should avoid connections with negative approach employees. y The employees should have emotional intelligence at workplace. They should have selfawareness, self-confidence and self-control at workplace. y The employees should build social support. They should have close connections with trustworthy peer who can listen to their problems and boost their confidence level. This social network will help the employees to overcome stress. y Find a fun way to release stress, such as, cracking jokes, playing tennis, golf, etc. Do not remain pre-occupied with yourself. Turn your focus outwards. Help others. This will release some stress.  Organizational Approaches:-Encouraging more of organizational communication with the employees so that there is no role ambiguity/conflict. Effective communication can also change employee views. Managers can use better signs and symbols which are not misinterpreted by the employees. y Encourage employees participation in decision-making. This will reduce role stress. y Grant the employees greater independence, meaningful and timely feedback, and greater responsibility. y The organizational goals should be realistic, stimulating and particular. The employees must be given feedback on how well they are heading towards these goals. y Encourage decentralization. y Have a fair and just distribution of incentives and salary structure. y Promote job rotation and job enrichment. y Create a just and safe working environment. y Have effective hiring and orientation procedure. y Appreciate the employees on accomplishing and over-exceeding their targets.

The Johari Window, named after the first names of its inventors, Joseph Luft and Harry Ingham, is one of the most useful models describing the process of human interaction. A four paned "window," as illustrated above, divides personal awareness into four different types, as represented by its four quadrants: open, hidden, blind, and unknown. The lines dividing the four panes are like window shades, which can move as an interaction progresses. In this model, each person is represented by their own window

1.Open: The open area is that part of our conscious self - our attitudes, behavior, motivation, values, way of life - of which we are aware and which is known to others. We move within this area with freedom. We are "open books". 2.Hidden: Our hidden area cannot be known to others unless we disclose it. There is that which we freely keep within ourselves, and that which we retain out of fear. The degree to which we share ourselves with others (disclosure) is the degree to which we can be known. 3.Blind: There are things about ourselves which we do not know, but that others can see more clearly; or things we imagine to be true of ourselves for a variety of reasons but that others do not see at all. When others say what they see (feedback), in a supportive, responsible way, and we are able to hear it; in that way we are able to test the reality of who we are and are able to grow 4.Unknown: We are more rich and complex than that which we and others know, but from time to time something happens - is felt, read, heard, dreamed something from our unconscious is revealed. Then we "know" what we have never "known" before.

Each 'Thinking Hat' is a different style of thinking. These are explained below:
y

y y

White Hat: With this thinking hat you focus on the data available. Look at the information you have, and see what you can learn from it. Look for gaps in your knowledge, and either try to fill them or take account of them. This is where you analyze past trends, and try to extrapolate from historical data. Red Hat: 'Wearing' the red hat, you look at problems using intuition, gut reaction, and emotion. Also try to think how other people will react emotionally. Try to understand the responses of people who do not fully know your reasoning. Black Hat: Using black hat thinking, look at all the bad points of the decision. Look at it cautiously and defensively. Try to see why it might not work. This is important because it highlights the weak points in a plan. It allows you to eliminate them, alter them, or prepare contingency plans to counter them. Black Hat thinking helps to make your plans 'tougher' and more resilient. It can also help you to spot fatal flaws and risks before you embark on a course of action. Black Hat thinking is one of the real benefits of this technique, as many successful people get so used to thinking positively that often they cannot see problems in advance. This leaves them under-prepared for difficulties. Yellow Hat: The yellow hat helps you to think positively. It is the optimistic viewpoint that helps you to see all the benefits of the decision and the value in it. Yellow Hat thinking helps you to keep going when everything looks gloomy and difficult. Green Hat: The Green Hat stands for creativity. This is where you can develop creative solutions to a

problem. It is a freewheeling way of thinking, in which there is little criticism of ideas. A whole range of creativity tools can help you here. Blue Hat: The Blue Hat stands for process control. This is the hat worn by people chairing meetings. When running into difficulties because ideas are running dry, they may direct activity into Green Hat thinking. When contingency plans are needed, they will ask for Black Hat thinking, etc.