SOIL SCIENCE FOR AGRICULTURE

Soil is the outer covering of the planet, and the basis of our gardens. What our soil is like affects what we can grow and how well plants do in our particular garden. Unless we grow all our plants in containers where we can choose what we grow them in, we have to adapt our expectations to the soil we find in our gardens.

WHAT IS SOIL MADE OF?

Initially, all over the planet, small pieces of rock broke off mountains and fell, breaking into smaller pieces as they went, so that at the bottom of mountains, heaps of rocks, stones and dust formed. Plants were able to take root in this, and when these plants died and decayed they added to the pockets of soil. Eventually, much of the planet was covered in soil, its exact composition determined partly by the type of rock in the area and by the local weather conditions. So all soil is composed of small pieces of the local rock and decayed vegetable or animal matter. The rock particles are classified on the basis of their size:

CLAY is the smallest particles of broken rock in soil, less than .0002mm in diameter, so it is a fine dust. When wet, the individual particles stick together to form a solid mass. When they dry, they can bake to a hard crust. Clay holds water which does not drain away. SILT is slightly larger pieces of rock than clay. It is also soft and smooth, with individual pieces close together. It too holds a lot of water, but the slightly larger particles make it a little better at draining than clay. Silt is often found in river estauries, because the fine particles are washed downstream and deposited when the water flows more slowly. SAND is small pieces of rock (2mm to .05mm diameter) such as quartz or sandstone. Sand particles are large enough to allow water to drain easily, but they do not hold water and are easily blown around when dry. STONES, ROCKS AND BOULDERS are larger pieces of rock which are too big to form part of the soil but are found in many gardens. Under the surface layer of soil, they can help drainage.

As well as rock, soil contains organic material, formed from decayed plants or animals. There are two main types of vegetation in soil: HUMUS is completely decayed matter. It forms a soft, crumbly material, uniformly dark brown in colour. It is the most useful component of soil from the plant's point of view, as it contains the nutrients necessary

for growth and also holds water which enables these nutrients to be taken up by the plant. It has a light, open structure which holds air and drains well. PEAT is partially-decomposed vegetable matter, usually mosses and sedges. It is fibrous, so helps give body to soil, but it contains few nutrients, is easily waterlogged and badly drained. Soil also contains various minerals which are needed by plants: nitrogen, potassium, phosphorus, magnesium, calcium, sulphur, and smaller quantities of iron, manganese, copper, zinc, boron, molybdenum and chlorine.

TYPES OF SOIL
The soil we garden on is usually the topsoil, the surface layer, and it is only this layer that we can attempt to alter. The levels of plant nutrients and air pockets decrease as we get further from the surface. The underlaying rock is the substrate, which has a bearing on the composition of our topsoil, its drainage and acidity. An underlying layer of clay will promote acidity and bad drainage in the topsoil, and an underlying bedrock of chalk will make our topsoil free-draining and alkaline, as well as providing a physical barrier to roots. Soils are classified into different types, from the gardener's point of view, depending on the amounts of the various components they contain. The three main types are heavy soils, medium soils and light soils.

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HEAVY SOILS

Heavy soils are those with a large component of clay in them, because the clay particles bind together to form a heavy, sticky lump which is difficult to dig. Because it is composed of so many fine particles which stick together easily, it is liable to compaction. It holds a lot of water and easily becomes waterlogged, so it is cold and wet in spring, and takes a long time to warm up. On the plus side, clay soils are usually fertile and contain plenty of plant nutrients, and hold sufficient water to make these available to plant roots. Clay soils are usually acidic. Heavy clay soils can be improved by adding humus or other organic matter and sharp sand for better drainage. Tree Lupin grows well in clay soils

MEDIUM SOILS A soil with a mixture of clay, silt, sand and humus is often referred to as a loam. It contains the nutrients necessary for plants, holds sufficient water to make them available to the plant roots, with air pockets between the particles to allow good drainage, and it holds together well. Perhaps the easiest soil for gardening in, these fertile loamy soils are suitable for almost any type of plant without alteration.

Medium soils are suitable for most plants

LIGHT SOILS There are several types of soil which can be called light. Sandy soils contain a very high proportion of sand, which contains few plant nutrients. They easily dry out, when the surface layer is easily blown away. Sandy soils drain quickly and do not hold water. They are often acidic. Sandy soils can be improved by adding plenty of organic matter in the form of garden compost or farmyard manure to give body and encourage moisture retention.

Some plants thrive on sand and shingle beaches

Peaty soils are also light. They often comprise almost solely peat, and often cover large areas of land, as in the New Forest or Dartmoor. Like sandy soils, they contain few plant nutrients. They are easily waterlogged, but can also dry out quickly. Peat soils may also contain a high percentage of fine sand, and they are acidic, supporting a small number of plant species that prefer these conditions. Peat forms the basis of soil-less composts, but needs the addition of fertilisers to provide plant nutrients. Peaty soil can be improved by the addition of garden compost or farmyard manure, and gravel or grit will help drainage.

Heath and heather on moorland in the New Forest

Chalky soils are also light. They are sometimes called basic soils. They are often very shallow, and they are always very alkaline. Chalk is a solid, soft rock which breaks down easily. It is very free draining, and chalky soils hold little water and dry out easily. They also tend to contain pieces of chalk, and often large flints, which should be treated with care, as they split easily and have very sharp edges. Chalky soils are fertile, but many of the nutrients are not available to plants because of the high alkalinity of the soil, which prevents the absorption of iron by plant roots. Chalky soils can be improved in so far as their physical structure is concerned, by the addition of humus to help retain water, but the alkalinity is almost impossible to alter, although sequestered iron sprinkled around individual plants may help them obtain the nutrients they need. A bluebell wood on the chalk of the North Downs

Although we might like to provide the perfect soil for every plant in our garden, it is not feasible to change the soil we have. Although there are some plants which grow naturally in a particular soil, most plants will grow in a wide variety of conditions. It is useful to know roughly what sort of soil you have to work with, and there's a simple test to check your soil composition on this webpage. Kits to test your soil's pH are available at garden centres, and a book listing plants suitable for particular soil types will convince you that whatever your soil you have a huge variety of plants to choose from. Two which have photos and descriptions of hundreds of plants are Right Plant, Right Place by Nicola Ferguson (Simon & Shuster) and Choosing the Perfect Plant for every part of your Garden (aka Best Plants for Your Garden) by Susan Berry & Steve Bradley. The RHS also publish one called Plants for Places.

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Alluvial soil , river deposits rich in potash ,poor in N,P good for all crops

Black Soil , forms cracks in summer, moisture retentive,highly suitable for cotton. Ok for sugarcane,groundnut,millets,rice,wheat,oilseeds Rich in iron,lime,calcium,magnesium,carbonates and alumina,poor in phosphorous,nitrogen and organic matter.

Red Soil : formed due to weathering of old crystalline rocks, more sandy less clay, rich in iron, small amounts of humus, poor in phosphorus,nitrogen and lime. Slightly acidic and do not retain moisture

As a tree grower we should have some basic knowledge about the chemical composition of our farm soil enabling us to select correct plant that suits our soil type. Some basic soil types, some problematic soils and their remedy methods are listed here. Those who have already tested their farm soil and got test reports can verify their soil status with the following 'Soil quality parameter chart.'

S.No. ........ Parameter

1. pH range

Acidic : Below 6.5

Neutral : 6.5 to 7.5

Alkaline : above 7.5

2. E.C Electrical Conductivity should be less than 1.

3. Carbonate status:

P.E - Profuse effervescence

M.E - Medium effervescence

N.E - No effervescence

4. N.P.K HighStatus ... MediumStatus........... LowStatus

N 148 ............ 113 to 148 .......... Below 113 Kgs per acre

P above 9 ...............4.5 to 9 .............Below 4.5 Kgs per acre

K above 113 ............ 48 to 113 .............Below 48 Kgs per acre N Nitrogen Essential for life P Phosphate P2O5 Phosphate Pentoxide ( Key to yield) K Potash K2 O Potassium oxide ( Chemical Policeman) ( Na Sodium is the thief.) 5. O.C Organic Carbon 0.5 Good, 1 Excellent 6. O.M Organic Matter Always double of O.C Soil weight of 6 depth x 1 Acre area = 10 Lakh Kgs. In that mass if you add 200 tons of dry matter,You will get 20 tons of Organic matter (OM), that will give 10 tons of Organic Carbon (OC) thats called 1% OC

7. C.E.C Cationic Exchange Capacity. It should be above 50. Achieving100 is a must. Heavy dose of organic input and Humic acid will enhance CEC considerably.

8. Essential elements: Carbon, Hydrogen and Oxygen (available from air & water)

9. Major Nutrients: N P K

10. Secondary Nutrients: Ca, Mg and S Ca Calcium is the king among the nutrients. Among Ca, Mg, Na & K, more than 50% should be Ca. Ca content should be 1/3 to 1/2 of C.E.C. In other words Ca should be 50% of CEC. If Ca is low, then apply Calcium Carbonate. Application of Mono calcium Phosphate and Super Phosphate should be increased.

Mg - Magnesium should be 25% of CEC. Ca and Mg should be in the ratio of 3:1. If Mg is low, then apply MgSo4.

Na, K and other Mineral balance 25% of CEC.

10 a) Micro Nutrients: Cu, Zn, Mn, Fe, Boron, Chlorine, Fluorine Etc.,

Cu - above 1.2 ppm or Kgs / Acre. If lower, then apply Cu So4.

Zn - above 1.2 ppm or Kgs / Acre. If lower, then apply Zn So4.

Mn - above 3.8 ppm or Kgs / Acre. i.e half the value of Fe. If lower, then apply Mn So 4.

Fe - above 6 ppm or Kgs / Acre. i.e double the value of Mn. If lower, then apply Fe So 4.

11. B.S.P: - Base Saturation Percentage should be above 80%.

Ratio between (Ca + Mg + Na + K / (CEC) x 100 = 80%

12. E.S.P - Exchangeable Sodium Percentage.

Safe level below10

Moderate level 10 to 15.

Toxic level >15.

( Na / CEC) x 100 = below 10%

13. Types of Soil : Sand, Loamy Sand, Sandy Loam, Sandy Clay Loam, Clay loam, Sandy Clay, Silty Clay and Clay.

14. Ideal Soil Texture : Sand 33% : Silt 33% : Clay 33%

15.

Acidic

soil due range

and to

its

remedies: ( Ph

because 6.5 of is

in low

Tamil) Ca. Acidic.

Acidity pH

Lower below

Apply recommended dose of Calcium 10 days before applying any basal fertilizers then plough well to properly mix the Ca in the soil and irrigate.

16. Alkaline soil and its remedies: ( pH because of the presence of Na.

' in Tamil) Alkalinity due to higher

Soil pH above 8 to 8.9 is Alkaline.

E.C below 4

E.S.P Below 10% (For Sodic Soil above 15%)

Growth of sensitive deep rooted crops will be moderately affected.

Apply liberal Qty. of FYM, raise Green Manure crops and plough them back into soil to increase O.C thereby increasing the drainage capacity of the soil.

Basal application of 300 Kgs of Gypsum per Acre for every crop. Apply more depending upon the alkalinity of the soil.

Use only Fertilizers like DAP, Zn So4, Am So4, K2 So4 (Pottassium Sulphate) Etc.

17. Sodic soil and its remedies: Presence of Na above 15 in Alkaline soil.

Soil pH above 9

E.C below 4

E.S.P above 15% (For Alkaline soils below 10%)

Sodium Carbonate in the Soil reacts with salts and Fertilizers and the end products get deposited as white patches above the soil. Because of higher pH, nutrients in the soil are less. Since the soil subsurface is harder, plant roots cant able to penetrate it. Remedy for Sodic Soil: Raise Daincha or Sunhemp and plough it back into soil (incorporate).

Cultivate Sun Flower Crop every year. It was proved that the Sun Flower plant absorbs Na from the soil and stores them in its parts. After harvest, the total plant with dried leaves should be removed. Apply 5 Tons of press mud from Sugar mill.

Use only Fertilizers like DAP, Zn So4, Am So4, K2 So4 (Pottassium Sulphate) Etc.

Apply liberal Qty. of M.N nutrients especially Zn. (Zn So4 @ 40Kgs per Hect. as basal is necessary.

25% more N as Basal is necessary.

Raise Saline resistant varieties (Such as Trichy 1, Co 43 in Paddy)

For Paddy, transplant only matured plantlings of 35 to 40 days age. Plant 3 to 5 saplings per Kuthu. Sodic condition can be rectified using Chemicals such as Gypsum, Sulphur or Pairates.

Role of Gypsum (Ca So4) in the reclamation of Sodic Soil: Contents of Gypsum: S 18% + Ca 23% + P2 O5 5% Regular application of Gypsum (Ca So4) @ 200 Kgs per Acre will give good yields because of its S and Ca contents. It neutralizes the harmful Na in the soil and reduces the E.S.P.

For Sodic soil reclamation :

1) Deep plough the field twice especially by Disc plough. It breaks open the hard soil pan lies in the subsurface and brings out the Na rich soil to the surface. 2) Evenly spread Gypsum (Ca So4) 2 Tons leading in good quality water (leaching) puddling by cage wheel ( ) - maintain Water level at 6 and wait for 2 days. - Ca So4 in Gypsum reacts with Na ( Sodium Bicarbonate ) in the soil and becomes Na So4 Drain out the frothy Na So4 solution from the field. Irrigate immediately - puddling by cage wheel ( ) 2nd time Drain out the frothy Na So4solution from the field.

3) Raise Daincha and incorporate. 4) Afetr that raise Horse Gram ( in Tamil) and dont take seeds in the first year allow the seeds to drop and the plant to wither after the rains i.e. in the next season take seeds. Saline soil and its remedies: ( in Tamil) Normal Ph range, but with more E.C, because of Sulphates and Chlorates of Ca, Mg, Na and K.

Soil with high soluble salts, hence E.C above 4

Density of the cell sap in the root system is lower than the density of the salts in the soil resulting in reverse osmosis. (i.e) water / cell sap will ooze out of the cell wall and into the soil.

Cultivate Saline (Uvar) tolerant varieties such as Paddy , Ragi, Cotton, Sugar cane and Chillies,

Apply liberal Qty. of FYM, raise Green Manure crops and plough them back into soil to increase O.C thereby increasing the drainage capacity of the soil. Level the field evenly - Irrigate Soft water ( free from Bicarbonates) copiously maintain water level then drain out the water completely - the unwanted salts dissolves in the water and flows out.

Provide adequate channels to let in rainwater and water from the irrigation tank. Salts will be washed off during heavy rains. Drain out the salt dissolved water from the field. We can reduce the salt content of the soil by increasing the drainage capacity of the field

Narender Rao Saineni, Hyderabad,India