INTRODUCTION TO MICROPROCESSOR AND MICROCOMPUTER

UNIT 1: INTRODUCTION TO MICROPROCESSOR AND MICROCOMPUTER

INTRODUCTION:
Since the introduction of the IBM PC, the microprocessor market has matured significantly. Today, several complete families of 16 and 32 bit microprocessors are available. They all include support product such as a very large scale integrated (VLSI) peripheral devices, emulators, and high level software languages. Over the same period of time, these higher performance microprocessors have become more widely used in the design of new electronic equipment and computers. This topic will review of the general architecture of microcomputer system, evolution of the microprocessors system.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
The objectives of this topic are to: 1. Equip trainees with the basic knowledge of microcomputer system and its components. 2. Lets trainees knows the evolution of microprocessors system 3. Introduce trainees with the new term of computer system

LEARNING OUTCOMES:
After completed this module trainees should be able to : 1. Understand the basic general architecture of microcomputer system. 2. Differentiate the microprocessor and microcomputer 3. Know the hardware of microcomputer 4. Know the function of the hardware of microcomputer 5. Know the evolution of the intel microprocessor architecture 5. Know the computer terminology

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1.1

GENERAL SYSTEM.

ARCHITECTURE

OF

MICROCOMPUTER

1.11 Overview of Microprocessor

Microprocessor is a special device (IC) which able to fetch , decode and execute the programmed instructions which stored in the memory.

* Fetch can read in, take out * Decode translating, interpreting * Execute take an action, run the program

Figure1.11 8088 Intel Microprocessor

Microprocessor consists of three elements , that is ALU , Register Unit and Control Unit. ALU performs arithmetic operations such as addition and subtraction also logic

operations such as NOT, AND , OR and EX- OR. During the execution of a program , data are temporarily stored in any of the many registers that make up this unit.

Control Unit provides the timing and control signals for getting data into and out of the microprocessor, for performing programmed instructions and for all others operations. When a microprocessor is connected to a memory device and provided means with a

of transferring data to and from the outside world , you have a

microcomputer.

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1.12 General Architecture

The hardware of a microcomputer system can be divided into four functional sections: i. ii. iii. iv. Input unit. Micro processing unit. (MPU) Memory unit. Output unit

Memory unit Primary storage memory Program storage memory Data storage memory Secondary Storage Memory

Input unit

MPU

Output unit

Figure 1.12 General Architecture of a Microcomputer system.

Input Unit
This unit allows the user to input information or commands to the MPU; for instance, a programmer could key in the lines of a BASIC program from the keyboard. Many other input devices are available for the PC; examples include a mouse, for implementing a more user-friendly input interface, and a joystick, for use when playing video games.

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MPU
The MPU is the part of the microcomputer that executes instructions of the program and process data. It is responsible for performing all arithmetic operation and making the logical decisions initiated by the computers program. It also controls overall system operation.

Output Unit
This unit used to give feedback to user and for producing documented results. For example, key entries from the keyboard are echoed back to the display; that is, by looking at the screen of the display, the user can confirm that the correct entry was made. The results produced by the MPUs processing can be either displayed or printed.

Memory
The memory unit is used to store information, such as number or character data. By store it mean that memory has the ability to hold this information for processing or for outputting at a later time. Programs that define how the computer is to operate and process data also reside in memory.

The memory can be categorized in two sections:

i. ii.

Primary storage memory Secondary storage memory

i. Primary Storage Memory Smaller in size. Used for temporary storage of active information such operating system, the program that is currently being run and the data that it is processing. Implement with ROM and RAM. ROM is a nonvolatile; that is, the information is not lost if power is turned off. RAM is volatile memory,when power is turned off,the data will lost. This memory storage is subdivided into two section; that is

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(a)

Program storage memory

- Store instruction of the operating system and application program. ( b) Data storage memory

-Contains data that are to be processed by the programs as they are executed.

ii. Secondary storage memory Used for long-term storage of information that is not currently being used. Example; Programs, file of data and files of information. (a)Floppy disk drive: Media can be removed. R/W media, file of data can be read in from or written out to the storage media. Could store up to 1.44Mbyte.

(b) Pen drive Media can be remove R/W media, file of data can be read in or written out to the storage media. Could store up to more than 1Gbyte.

(c) Hard disk drive: Media cannot be removed fix and portable Larger storage memory. R/W media.

(d) CD drive: Very large storage capacity, more than Normally used for storage of large programs or files of data that are not to be change. Read only storage.

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(e) CD R/W: Very large storage capacity Used to copy files or data to CD R/W media.

Exercise 1.1
1. What are the four building blocks of microcomputer system ? 2. What is the heart of the microcomputer called ? 3. Is the 8088 an 8 bit or 16 bit microprocessor ? 4. What is the primary input unit of PC?. give two examples of i/p unit available for the PC . 5. What are the primary output devices of the PC ? 6. What do ROM and RAM stand for ?

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1.2 EVOLUTION OF THE INTEL MICROPROCESSOR ARCHITECTURE.

The principle way in which microprocessors and microcomputers are categorized is in terms of the maximum number of binary bits in the data they process, which is their word length. Five standard data widths have evolved for microprocessor and microcomputer. i. ii. iii. iv. v. 4 bit (1 nibble) 8 bit (1 Byte) 16 bit (1 Word) 32 bit (1 long word) 64 bit.(2 long word)

Figure 1.2 below, illustrates the evolution of Intels microprocessor since their introduction in 1972.

Figure 1.2 Evolution of the Intel microprocessor architecture

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Table 1.3 illustrates the evolution of Intels microprocessors since their introduction in 1972. Year 1972 1974 1975 1977 1979 1980 1982 1983 1985 1986 1990 1993 1995 1998 1999 2000 2003 2004 2005 Processor 4004 8008 8080 8085 8086 8088 80186,80286 80188 80C186,80C188 80386 80386EX, 80486 Pentium processor Pentium pro processor PentiumII processor Pentium III Pentium IV Pentium M Pentium 4 HT Pentium D Table 1.3 evolution of Intel microprocessors 4004 The first generation of microprocessor Design to process data arranged as 4 bit words (a nibble) Implement a very low performance microcomputer by today standard. Used for simpler, special purpose applications. Commonly used in electronic calculators.

8008.8080 and 8085 The second generation of microprocessor. 8 bit microprocessors. Design to process 8 bit ( 1 byte wide ) data. Higher performance operation, larger system capabilities and greater ease of programming. Used for special purpose system designs. Example ; electronics instruments, cash register and printers.

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8086 family (8086,8088,80186,80188 and 80286) 8086 8088

The third generation of microprocessor. The first Intel 16 bit processors. Introduced in 1979

16 bit processor and 8 bit external bus version. Introduced in 1980

80186,80188 and 80286 16 bit processors. Provided higher performance and had the ability to satisfy a broad scope of special purpose and general purpose microcomputer application. Have ability to handle 8-bit,16-bit, and special-purpose data types and their powerful instruction sets are more in line with those provided by a minicomputer.

80386DX Introduced in 1985 The first generation of 32-bit microprocessor. Change minicomputer level to microcomputer level.

80386SX Introduced in 1988 32-bit microprocessor 16- bit external bus version. 80486DX Introduced in 1989 Intel second generation of 32 bit microprocessors. 80486SX Introduced in 1990 Intel 32 bit microprocessors and 16 bit external bus. Pentium processor Introduced in 1993 32 bit processor Higher performance family.

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1.21 Microprocessor Performance: MIPS and iCOMP

Performance of microprocessors is measured in what are called MIPS that is how many million instructions they can execute per second.

Notice that performance of microprocessor increased with each new generation. MIPS are measured by running a test program called Drystone program, and the resulting performance measurement are normalized to those of a VAX 1.1 computer (VAX 1.1 was a minicomputer manufactured by Digital Equipment Corporation). Example: The 80486DX is capable of delivering up to 27 VAX MIPS of performance.

The second method of measuring microprocessor performance is the iCOMP index.

This method is provided by Intel Corporation for comparison of the performance of their 32-bit microprocessors in a personal computer environment. The higher the iCOMP rating, the higher the performance offered by the MPU.

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Exercise 1.2
1. What are the standard data word lengths for which microprocessor have been developed? 2. What was the first 4 bit microprocessor introduced by intel corporation? 8bit, 16-bit, 32-bit. 3. Named five 16-bit members of the 8086 family architecture. 4. What do the MIPS stand for ?.

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1.3 TERM AND CONVERSION

1.3.1 Term ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange )
The ASCII code has 128 standard characters and a further 128 characters that vary from machine to machine and country to country. ASCII be being replaced by a 16 bit code with 65536 characters that can represent every text character in the world including those used historically.

Codes with special meanings to DOS, Printers or ANSI screens. Decimal 0 7 8 9 10 13 26 27

Nul Bel Bak Tab Lf Cr Eof Esc

NULL character. ( End of text string marker. ) Bell or beep character. Delete or back space character. TAB character. Line Feed (start a new line). is the Carriage Return code. DOS End Of File code. Escape code. It has special effects on printers and ANSI screens. ANSI = American National Standards Institute.

32 255

Spa Nul

Space Character. another NULL character.

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386 CPU chips in IBM compatible computers are typically numbered 086, 186, 286, 386, 486, 586 or Pentium. 086 chips are now regarded as old fashioned and slow. The Pentium pro was the latest chip when this was written. To run Windows, a 386 chip is the minimum recommended. 8 Bit CPU The CPU has registers and connections to the outside world that are 8 bits wide. 16 bit and 32 bit CPUs are also common, more powerful and more expensive. 64 bit CPUs exist but are not common (1995)

80x86 The family of Intel chips numbered 8086, 80186, 80286, 80386, 80486 and Pentium. Accelerator Key Improves your productivity. For example Alt+F4 closes the current window and is quicker to press than the equivalent mouse or menu actions. Analogue Electronic systems that deal with continuously varying signals. Radio, TV and HiFi systems are all analogue. CD Players are digital but the digital signals must be converted to analogue before being sent to the HiFi system. ANSI American National Standards Institute Architecture CPU designs are more complex than typical building designs. Computer architecture is equivalent to building architecture. To make best use of a computer, it is useful to know something about the computer design or architecture.

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ASCII The American Standard Code for Information Interchange. This is an eight bit code. There are 128 characters which are standard. There are a further 128 characters that vary depending on the country and the graphics symbols required by and printers. American ASCII is being replaced by International Unicode.

ASCII Code zero is used to mark the end of text strings. ASM The usual file extension for assembly code programs Assembler

Assembly code Human readable commands like MOV AL,33 correspond closely to CPU machine codes. The assembler program translates the human readable codes into machine codes readable by the CPU Backup copy Copies of files kept in case of disaster. These should be kept in a secure place away from the computer system they belong to. Important files should be backed up in more than one place. Sod's law applies to back up files. The file you is the one you have failed to back up. Base Address The start address of an object stored in memory. For example : The IBM PC VGA screen base address is B800:0000 followed by 4000 more bytes. Binary Base two numbers used by digital systems. Count with two symbols [ 0 1 ] Binary numbers are composed of noughts and ones. Electronically this is achieved by circuits that are switched off or on.

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Bit Masks Patterns of noughts and ones used with AND, OR and XOR to extract or inserts bits into bytes. Bits Binary digits. Single digits that are nought or one. Byte Eight Bits. Carriage Return ASCII code 13 used to move the printer carriage or head to the left of the page. The screen cursor performs in the equivalent way. See also - Line Feed

Case Sensitive Upper and lower case are taken to be different. This simulator is not case sensitive. Chip Shorthand for microchip or integrated circuit. The CPU is often referred to as the CPU Chip. Click Usually the left mouse button being pressed when the mouse is pointing at a screen object. Clock The CPU clock steps the computer and CPU at regular time intervals keeping all parts of the computer in step. A typical clock speed might be 160 Megahertz. Comments These begin with ';' and are used to explain what the program is doing. Good comments explain why things are being done. Bad comments simply repeat what is obvious by looking at the code.

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Conditional Jumps These jumps either take place or not depending on the flags in the status register. See JS, JNS, JO, JNO, JZ, JNZ, JMP. Control Key This is used to give keys special meanings. For example the combination of the control key with the F4 function key will close a window in some software packages. Control Systems Industrial and domestic equipment is frequently controlled by a small microcomputer called a microcontroller. The control system is programmed once for life so a TV remote controller can not be re-programmed as a washing machine controller. CPU Central Processing Unit. The part of the computer that does the computations. Usually this is a single microchip. Cursor A flashing symbol that indicates position within text. Alternatively the mouse cursor indicates the mouse position. Special purpose cursors are used in some software. Data tables These store numbers, text or pointers to other data objects. It is easier to look after data in a table than data scattered throughout a program. It is good style to use data tables. Decimal Base 10 numbers. Count with ten symbols. [ 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 ] Digital Electronic Systems that use binary. Computers use binary numbers and are digital. HiFi

systems do not use binary and are not digital. (A HiFi remote control system is digital) See analogue.

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Direct Same as Immediate. Directory or Folder File systems are organised into directories in much the same way that filing cabinets are organised into draws and folders. Your files should be stored in a directory that you have created. This keeps your files from getting muddled up with all the other files on the computer. Divide by zero This will cause an error. Any number divided by zero is infinitely big. This can not be calculated. End Of File ASCII code 26 used to indicate the end of MS DOS text files. Escape ASCII code 27 This character is often interpreted in a special way by programs, VDUs and printers. Executable Code Non human readable program code executed by the CPU. Explorer See File Manager Extension The MS DOS file extension is zero or more characters after the dot in the file name. Word processor files often have .DOC on the end. Assembly code files end in .ASM F1 Key Commonly this access the on line helps.

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File Data stored on disk or tape. When the data is loaded from the file into RAM, it could consist of a program or data used by the program. File Manager or Explorer A windows program that enables you to manage your files. Copying, renaming and deleting files and directories are typical file management tasks. Flags The Sign, Zero and Overflow flags in the status register indicate the outcome of the previous calculation. See S Flag, O flag and Z flag. Floppy disk Used to store files. 3.5 inch disks have a hard rectangular plastic casing to protect the thin floppy disk inside. Older disks are actually floppy. The case is bendy cardboard. Folder See Directory Function keys F1, F2 ... F10. These keys have special purposes depending on the software in use. F1 usually activates help. F10 usually activates the menu.

General Purpose Registers AL, BL, CL and DL are used to store data and perform calculations. Graphics Images, pictures and geometrical shapes are examples of graphics. Windows displays everything as graphics. This gives good looking displays but a lot of processing is needed to achieve it.

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Hard disk A disk that can not normally be removed from the computer. Most computer files are stored on the hard disk. There should also be backup copies stored elsewhere in case the hard disk fails.

Hexadecimal Base 16 numbers. Count with 16 symbols. [ 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A B C D E F ] Hexadecimal and Binary are easily converted which is why hexadecimal is used. Hot Keys Ctrl+S and Ctrl+O are examples of hot keys. These give quick access to menu options. Ctrl+S gives the File Save command. Ctrl+O gives the File Open command. Immediate The instruction MOV AL,25 is an example of an immediate instruction. See also : Register, Indirect, Register indirect and MOV. Indirection This is where data in RAM is referred to with a pointer. For example MOV AL,[20] moves the data from RAM location 20 into the AL register. [20] is a pointer to the RAM location. The technique is called indirection. See MOV, Immediate, Register, Register indirect

Instruction Pointer IP points to the instruction being executed. When the instruction is complete, the IP is moved onto the next instruction. highlighted red with yellow text. Instruction Set The set of instructions that are recognised by a CPU. Typical instructions are Move, Add and Subtract. In the RAM displays, the instruction pointer is

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Interrupt routine A program fragment designed to be activated at any time that an interrupt occurs. The fragment is stored at an address pointed to by an interrupt vector. Interrupts can be triggered by hardware. For example a key press or the printer running out of paper cause a hardware interrupt. The CPU switches to the code that handles the interrupt. When finished, the CPU continues with its earlier task. Interrupt Vector A pointer stored in a table. The pointer points at the interrupt handler. See INT. IO Short for Input Output. See IN and OUT Least significant bit LSB. The right most bit in a byte which is worth 0 or 1. LIFO See Stack. Line Feed ASCII code 10 used to start a new line on the printed page or screen. See also Carriage Return.

List File This is generated by the simulator assembler. It contains the program written by the programmer. It also contains the machine codes generated by the assembler. Low level Low level programming is done using the CPU machine code or mnemonics the are close to the machine codes. LSB Least Significant Bit. Right hand bit in a byte. Has a value of 1.

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Machine codes Machine codes are executed by the CPU See Assembly codes.

Human readable commands

MOV AL,55

Hexadecimal equivalent D0 00 55 Binary machine code Megabytes One million bytes. Megahertz MHz. Million clock cycles per second. A 33 MHz clock means that the CPU performs 33 million steps per second. These sorts of speeds are needed to fill screens with high resolution graphics quickly. 110100000000000001010101

Memory Mapped Memory mapped hardware is controlled by writing data into memory locations occupied by that hardware device. This simulator has a memory mapped screen so each screen position corresponds to a memory location. Microchip Complex electronic circuits miniaturised onto a single wafer or chip of silicon

Microcontroller Usually a single chip microcircuit containing a CPU and RAM. Microcontrollers are used in TV remote controllers, washing machines, digital clocks, microwave ovens, industrial plant controllers, car engine management systems and computer games. Microprocessor A single chip CPU. Mnemonic A memorable and human readable item like MOV that corresponds to a non memorable item like 11010000 that means the same thing.
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Most significant bit MSB. The left most bit in a byte which is worth 128. MSB Most Significant Bit. The left hand bit in a byte. It has a value of 128 decimal or 80Hex if the byte is unsigned (positive numbers only). It has a value of -128 if the byte is signed (positive and negative numbers). The MSB has a value that depends on how wide in bits the data storage location is. Multiplexing Combining two or more data flows onto a single carrying medium. For example a thousand telephone calls can be carried on a single cable. De-multiplexing separates the channels and routes them to their correct destinations.

NULL ASCII code zero used to mark the end of text strings. O Flag The O or overflow Flag in the status register indicates if the previous calculation overflowed its register. Off Line Computer resources that will be connected and made available at some later time. Off line resources do not need interaction with the user. On Line Computer resources that are connected and can be accessed with a negligible or short time delay. On line resources usually need interaction with the user. OP Code A binary code that the CPU can interpret as a command. These correspond to commands like MOV and ADD.

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Overflow Flag This is set if the result of the previous calculation was too big to fit the register. Parameters Data passed into procedures of functions. Parameters can be passed using registers, RAM locations or the Stack. Peripherals Hardware plugged into the computer. Anything from a keyboard or mouse to a power station or chemical works. Pointers In the command MOV AL,[25] the 25 is a pointer to the RAM location with address 25. See indirection.

Ports Input Output Ports. Peripherals are connected to ports. The IN and OUT machine instructions are used to communicate with the peripherals. Procedures Code fragments that can be used many times during the execution of a program. See CALL and RET in the instruction set.

Programs Instructions executed by a computer to perform tasks. Ram Random access memory. Electronic memory that stores bytes. Normal RAM forgets what it was storing when switched off. Recursion A powerful technique where a procedure or function re-uses itself to achieve a task.

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Register A location in the CPU where data is stored. This simulator has four general purpose registers called AL, BL, CL and DL. It has special purpose registers called IP, SR and SP.

Register In the instruction CMP AL,BL registers are being compared. See also : Immediate, Indirect, Register indirect. Register indirect. In the instruction MOV AL,[BL] the BL register contains a pointer to a RAM location. The data in this RAM location is moved into AL. This is a register indirect move. See also : Immediate, Indirect and Register.

Repetition This is achieved by using jump commands to make the program jump back and repeat instructions. Reset CPU Clear the general purpose registers to zero. Set IP to zero. Set the flags to Zero. Set the stack pointer to BF. The stack grows downwards from address FB. Return address The address stored on the stack that the program returns to when a procedure or interrupt is complete. Run Run a program. Programs are collections of stored instructions that are usually inactive. To run a program, it must be copied from disk into RAM and the CPU is given the address of the first instruction in the program so it can run it Unicode A 65536 character code including every text character for all languages in the world including most dead (disused) languages. This code is replacing ASCII
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S Flag The S or sign flag in the status register indicates if the previous calculation gave a negative result. Save a file Copy processed data from RAM onto disk. Seven segment displays are used in digital clocks, watches, calculators and so on. Numbers are built up by illuminating combinations of the seven segments. Sign bit The left most bit in a binary number that is used to indicate if the number is positive or negative.

Sign Flag This is set if a calculation gives a negative result. Signed Numbers Numbers where the left most bit is the sign bit. Simulator Computer software that models reality in some way. Virtual reality aims to make the simulation so realistic that it seems real. Most simulations are designed to be useful rather than realistic. Source Code The human readable program code typed into the computer. See executable code. SP The stack pointer register. In the RAM displays, the stack pointer is highlighted blue with yellow text.

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SR The status register. Stack An area of memory used for temporary storage according to the LIFO rule. Last in First out. The stack is used to save register contents for later restoration, pass parameters into procedures and return results, reverse the order in which data is stored, save addresses so procedures can return to the right place and there are other uses include doing postfix arithmetic. Stack Pointer Points to the next free location on the stack. In the RAM displays, the stack pointer is highlighted blue with yellow text.

Status Register The status Register contains status flags that indicate the outcome of the previous calculation. The flags are Sign, Zero and Overflow. Stepper motor A special motor that rotates in small controlled angular movements. It is used commonly in printers, plotters and medical instruments. Task Switching Use Alt Tab to task switch manually. Operating systems also task switch automatically. For example when word processing, the clock display continues to work because from time to time the operating system switches tasks to keep both going. Thermostat A temperature controlled switch. On when too cold. Off when too hot.

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Token List When programs are translated into machine code, one of the first steps is to convert the source code of the program into tokens. These are not usually human readable. The tokens are designed to occupy minimal memory.

Twos complement Binary numbers where the left most bit determines whether the number is positive or negative. Unsigned numbers Numbers without a sign bit. These are always positive. VDU Visual display unit. Computer output is commonly displayed on the VDU. There are several VDU display technologies. Write A simple Windows word processor. Data is saved to disk in a format unique to the Write program. Z Flag The Z or zero flag is set it the previous calculation result was zero.

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SUMMARY
In this unit we have studied:

1.

The hardware of a microprocessor system can be divided into four section , that is input unit , micro processing unit ( MPU ), memory unit and output unit.

2.

Evolution of the 8088 microprocessor system begin with 4 bit micprocessor , then 8 bit , 16 bit 32 bit and 64 bit.

3. 4.

Microprocessor performance is measured in MIPS and Icomp. Term and conversion in the microprocessor and microcomputer world.

ANSWERS
EXERCISE 1.1 1. Four building blocks of microprocessor system are , input unit , output unit , MPU , and memory unit. 2. The heart of microcomputer called MPU. 3. 8088 IS 16 bit. 4. Primary input unit is keyboard. 2 another examples of input unit are joystick and mouse. 5. The primary output device of the PC is printer. 6. ROM Read only memory, RAM Random Access Read / Write Memory.

EXERCISE 1.2 1. 4 bit , 8bit , 16 bit , 32 bit and 64 bit. 2. First 4 bit is 4004 , 8 bit is 8008/ 8080, 16 bit is 8086 and 32 bit is 80386DX. 3. Five , 16 bit members of the 8086 family are 8086 , 8088 , 80186, 80188 and 80286. 4. MIPS million instruction per second.

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