Chapter 28: Protists

Overview: Living Small

Protist is the informal name of the kingdom of mostly unicellular eukaryotes Protists constitute a paraphyletic group, and Protista is no longer valid as a kingdom (Give an example of a paraphyletic group and
explain what this means)

All Eukaryotes but this one

1 m

Most eukaryotes are single-celled organisms

Protists are eukaryotes and thus have organelles and are more complex than prokaryotes (Distinguish between Protists
and Prokaryotes)

Most protists are unicellular, but there are some colonial and multicellular species

Structural and Functional Diversity in Protists

Protists exhibit more structural and functional diversity than any other group of eukaryotes

Single-celled protists can be very complex, as all biological functions are carried out by organelles in each cell
Can you think of a larger scale analog of the specialization of organelles within a cell?

Structural and Functional Diversity in Protists

Protists, the most nutritionally diverse of all eukaryotes, include: 1. Photoautotrophs, which contain chloroplasts 2. Heterotrophs, which absorb organic molecules or ingest larger food particles (What are the two ways
heterotrophs obtain food?)

3. Mixotrophs, which combine photosynthesis and heterotrophic nutrition

Protists can reproduce asexually or sexually by the processes of meiosis and syngamy

Endosymbiosis in Eukaryotic Evolution

There is now considerable evidence that much protist diversity has its origins in endosymbiosis

Endosymbiosis - unicellular organisms engulf other cells which become endosymbionts and ultimately organelles
Mitochondria evolved by endosymbiosis of an aerobic prokaryote Plastids (major organelles) evolved by endosymbiosis of a photosynthetic cyanobacterium
(Name two organelles in Protists that evolved through endosymbiosis)

Phagocytosis resulted in eukaryotes

Endosymbiosis in Eukaryotic Evolution

Cyanobacterium

Red alga

Primary endosymbiosis

Heterotrophic eukaryote Over the course of evolution, this membrane was lost.

1 m
Green alga

Endosymbiosis in Eukaryotic Evolution

Plastid Dinoflagellates

Secondary endosymbiosis

Apicomplexans

Cyanobacterium

Red alga

Primary endosymbiosis

Stramenopiles Plastid

Heterotrophic eukaryote Over the course of evolution, this membrane was lost. Green alga

Secondary endosymbiosis

Euglenids
Secondary endosymbiosis

Chlorarachniophytes

Five Eukaryote Super Groups

Diplomonads Parabasalids Euglenozoans Excavata Dinoflagellates Apicomplexans Chromalveolata Ciliates Diatoms Stramenopiles Golden algae Brown algae Oomycetes

Alveolates

The Prostists are no longer believed to be a monophyletic group (What does this mean?) One hypothesis divides all eukaryotes (including protists) into five supergroups

Chlorarachniophytes Forams Radiolarians

Rhizaria

Red algae Chlorophytes Charophyceans Land plants

Archaeplastida

Slime molds Gymnamoebas Entamoebas Nucleariids Fungi Choanoflagellates Animals Unikonta

Protists: Super Group 1Excavata

Diplomonads Parabasalids Euglenozoans Excavata

5 m

Giardia intestinalis - you get this from drinking dirty water This is the source of so-called Beaver Fever

Protists: Super Group IExcavates

The clade Excavata is characterized by shared cytoskeleton characteristics and include members with modified mitochondria and unique flagellae (Name three characteristics of Excavates) Some members have a feeding groove on one side (excavated) It is unclear whether this group is monophyletic
Diplomonads Parabasalids Kinetoplastids Euglenids Euglenozoans Chromalveolata Rhizaria Archaeplastida Unikonta Excavata
(controversial)

Protists/Escavates/Diplomonads & Parabasalids

Live in anaerobic environments, lack plastids, and have modified mitochondria (Three characteristics) Diplomonads 1. Have modified mitochondria called mitosomes 2. Have two equal-sized nuclei and multiple flagella 3. Are often parasites, for example, Giardia intestinalis

Diplomonads
Parabasalids Kinetoplastids Euglenids Euglenozoans Excavata

Protists/Excavates/Parabasilids
1. Have reduced mitochondria called hydrogenosomes that generate some energy anaerobically 2. Include Trichomonas vaginalis, the pathogen that causes yeast infections in human females (below)
Flagella

Undulating membrane

5 m

Protists/Excavates/Euglenozoans
Includes predatory heterotrophs, photosynthetic autotrophs, and pathogenic parasites The main feature distinguishing them as a clade is a spiral or crystalline rod of unknown function inside their flagella This clade includes the kinetoplastids and euglenids (next two slides)
Flagella 0.2 m

Crystalline rod Ring of microtubules

Diplomonads Parabasalids
Kinetoplastids Euglenids

Excavata

Euglenozoans

Protists/Excavates/Euglenozoans/kinetoplastids

9 m

Kinetoplastids have a single mitochondrion with an organized mass of DNA called a kinetoplast This group includes Trypanosoma, which causes sleeping sickness in humans (above) (Give an example of a kinetoplastid)

Diplomonads Parabasalids
Kinetoplastids Euglenids

Excavata

Euglenozoans

Protists/Excavates/Euglenozoans/Euglenids
Euglenids have one or two flagella that emerge from a pocket at one end of the cell

Some species can be both autotrophic (in sun) and heterotrophic (out of sun); others are phagocytotic
Long flagellum

Eyespot Short flagellum Contractile vacuole

Light detector

Nucleus
Chloroplast

Plasma membrane
Euglena (LM) 5 m

Pellicle

Protists: Super Group 2Chromalveolata

Dinoflagellates Apicomplexans Ciliates Chromalveolata
Alveolates Stramenopiles

Diatoms
Golden algae Brown algae Oomycetes

50 m

Diatoms pretty, siliceous, and used to infer past climates

Chromalveolates may have originated by secondary endosymbiosis

Some data suggest that the clade Chromalveolata is monophyletic, originating by a secondary endosymbiosis event with a red alga as the endosymbiont This clade is controversial and includes the Alveolates and the Stramenopiles
Excavata Dinoflagellates Apicomplexans Ciliates

Alveolates
Chromalveolata Stramenopiles

Diatoms
Golden algae Brown algae Oomycetes

Rhizaria Archaeplastida Unikonta

Protists/ Chromalveolates/Alveolates
Members of the clade Alveolata have membrane-bounded sacs (alveoli) just under the plasma membrane The function of the alveoli is unknown Alveolata includes dinoflagellates, apicomplexans, ciliates
Flagellum Alveoli

Alveolate 0.2 m

Protists/Chromalveolates/Alveolates/Dinoflagellates
Dinoflagellates are a diverse group of aquatic mixotrophs and heterotrophs

They are abundant components of both marine and freshwater phytoplankton

Two flagella make them spin as they move through the water Dinoflagellate blooms are the cause of toxic red tides

Flagella

3 m

Protists/Chromalveolates/Alveolates/Apicomplexans
Apicomplexans are parasites of animals, and some cause serious human diseases

One end, the apex, contains a complex of organelles specialized for penetrating a host
They have a nonphotosynthetic plastid, the apicoplast, which is most likely of red algal origin (What is an apicoplast and where
would I find one?) and (example of secondary endosymbiosiswhy secondary?)

Most have sexual & asexual stages that require two or more different host species for life-cycle completion

Apicomplexans
The apicomplexan Plasmodium is the parasite that causes malaria (Give an example of a pathogenic member of the Apicomplexans)

Plasmodium requires both mosquitoes and humans to complete its life cycle
Approximately 2 million people die each year from malaria (300 million are infected) Efforts are ongoing to develop vaccines that target this pathogen; as of now mosquito nets are the best tool for prevention

Protists/Chromalveolates/Alveolates/Ciliates
Ciliates are named for their use of cilia to move and feed They have large macronuclei and small micronuclei, which function during conjugation, a sexual process that produces genetic variation

Contractile vacuole

Oral groove Cell mouth 50 m Cilia

Micronucleus Food vacuoles Macronucleus

(a) Feeding, waste removal, and water balance

Protists/Chromalveolates/Stramenopiles
The clade Stramenopila includes several groups of heterotrophs as well as certain groups of algae Most have a hairy flagellum paired with a smooth flagellum (What Protist group has a hairy flagellum?)
Excavata Dinoflagellates Apicomplexans Ciliates Diatoms Golden algae Brown algae Oomycetes Alveolates Chromalveolata

Stramenopiles

Rhizaria Archaeplastida Unikonta

Protists/Chromalveolata/Stramenopiles/Diatoms
Diatoms are unicellular algae with a unique two-part, glass-like wall of hydrated silica. Cell wall is like shoebox and lid

Diatoms usually reproduce asexually, but occasionally sexually; they are a major component of phytoplankton
Fossilized diatom walls compose much of the sediments known as diatomaceous earth

Protists/Chromalveolata/Stramenopiles/Golden Algae
Golden algae are named for their color, which results from their yellow and brown carotenoids Golden algae cells are typically biflagellated; all are photosynthetic; Most Golden Algae are unicellular, but some are colonial

Flagellum Outer container

Living cell

Brown Algae
Brown algae are the largest and most complex algae

All are multicellular, and most are marine (the seaweeds)

Giant seaweeds called kelps live in deep parts of the ocean The algal body is plantlike but lacks true roots, stems, and leaves and is called a thallus The rootlike holdfast anchors the stemlike stipe, which in turn supports the leaflike blades

Blade

Stipe

Holdfast

Alternation of Generations
A variety of life cycles have evolved among the multicellular algae

The most complex life cycles include an alternation of generations, the alternation of multicellular haploid and diploid forms Heteromorphic generations are structurally different, while isomorphic generations look similar (Define each, or differentiate
between these two ideas)

AoG Brown Alga

Sporangia

10 cm
Sporophyte (2n)
MEIOSIS

Zoospore

Female Gametophytes (n)

Egg

Male

Key Haploid (n) Diploid (2n)

Sperm

AoG Brown Alga

Sporangia

10 cm
Sporophyte (2n)
MEIOSIS

Zoospore

Female Developing sporophyte Zygote (2n)

FERTILIZATION

Gametophytes (n)

Mature female gemetophyte (n)

Egg

Male

Key Haploid (n) Diploid (2n)

Sperm

I might ask you to label this

Protists/Chromalvolata/Stramenopiles/Oomycetes
Oomycetes include water molds, white rusts, downy mildews

They were once considered fungi based on morphological studies (What group were the Oomycetes once linked to because of physical
similarity? What is it called when two fairly unrelated groups have similar characteristics?)

Most oomycetes are decomposers or parasites They have filaments (hyphae) that facilitate nutrient uptake Their ecological impact can be great, as in Phytophthora infestans causing potato blight.
(Irish Potato Famine)

Protists: Super Group 3Rhizaria

Chlorarachniophytes Rhizaria

Forams
Radiolarians

20 m

Globigerina has a hard calcium carbonate shell or test and extends pseudopodia through pores in this to move

Protists/Rhizaria
DNA similarities support Rhizaria as a monophyletic group Amoebas move and feed by pseudopodia; some but not all belong to the clade Rhizaria Rhizarians include forams and radiolarians (Which of the following
groups belong to the Rhizaria?)

Excavata Chromalveolata Chlorarachniophytes Forams Radiolarians Archaeplastida Rhizaria

Unikonta

Protists/Rhizaria/Forams
Forams, are named for porous, generally multichambered shells, called tests Foram tests in marine sediments form an extensive fossil record (What protist group has members that look a lot like snails?)

Protists/Rhizaria/Radiolarians
Marine protists called radiolarians have tests fused into one delicate piece, usually made of silica

Radiolarians use their pseudopodia to engulf microorganisms through phagocytosis

Pseudopodia

200 m

Protists: Super Group 4Archaeplastida

Red algae Chlorophytes Charophyceans Land plants Archaeplastida

20 m

50 m

Biflagellate cells

Volvox hollow balls of cells embedded in a gelatinous matrix

Protists/Archaeplastida
Red and green algae are the closest relatives of land plants

The ancestors of red and greed algae resulted from a heterotrophic protist englufing a cyanobacteria (primary
endosymbiosis)

Land plants are descended from the green algae (what group of
protists contain the ancestors of land plants?)

Archaeplastida is a monophyletic group

Excavata Chromalveolata Rhizaria Red algae Chlorophytes Charophyceans Land plants Unikonta Green algae Archaeplastida

Protist/Archaeplastida/Red Algae
20 cm

Bonnemaisonia hamifera

Reddish color is due to a pigment call phycoerythrin that masks the green of chlorophyll (Why is
red algae red?)

Usually multicellular; the largest are seaweeds (What two Protist groups
contain the seaweeds?)

8 mm Dulse (Palmaria palmata)

Nori. The red alga Porphyra is the source of a traditional Japanese food.

Red algae are the most abundant large algae in coastal waters of the tropics

The seaweed is grown on nets in shallow coastal waters.

The harvested seaweed is spread on bamboo screens to dry.

Paper-thin, glossy sheets of nori make a mineral-rich wrap for rice, seafood, and vegetables in sushi.

Protist/Archaeplastida/Green Algae
Green algae are named for their grass-green chloroplasts The two main groups are chlorophytes and charophyceans Most chlorophytes live in fresh water, although many are marine Other chlorophytes live in damp soil, as symbionts in lichens, or in snow (name three non-aquatic habitats
where green algae live)

Watermelon snow

Protists/Archaeplastida/Green Algae
Chlorophytes include unicellular, colonial, and multicellular forms Most chlorophytes have complex life cycles with both sexual and asexual reproductive stages Some systematists feel that the green algae should be included in the plant kingdom
2 cm (a) Ulva, or sea lettuce

(b) Caulerpa, an intertidal chlorophyte

Protists: Super Group 5Unikonta

Slime molds Gymnamoebas Entamoebas Nucleariids Fungi
Choanoflagellates

Unikonta

Animals

100 m

Amoeba proteus engulfing a small green algae

Protists/Unikonta
The super group Unikonta includes animals, fungi, and some closely related protists (What well known groups are contained in the
Unikonta?)

This group includes two clades: the amoebozoans and the opisthokonts (which cover the rest)
It is unclear whether unikonts separated from other eukaryotes relatively early or late

Excavata Chromalveolata Rhizaria Archaeplastida

Amoebozoans
Nucleariids Fungi Choanoflagellates

Unikonta

Animals

Protists/Unikonts/Amoebozoans
Amoebozoans are amoeba that have lobe- or tube-shaped, rather than threadlike, pseudopodia

They include gymnamoebas, entamoebas, slime molds

Slime molds (mycetozoans), were once thought to be fungi Slime molds can be divided into the Plasmodial Slime Molds, and the Cellular Slime Molds; which differ in life cycle (Name two
different kinds of slime molds found in the Unikonts)

Protists/Unikonts/Amoebozoans

4 cm

FERTILIZATION

Zygote (2n)

Feeding plasmodium

Mature plasmodium (preparing to fruit)

Flagellated cells (n)

Amoeboid cells (n) Germinating spore

Spores (n)
MEIOSIS

Young sporangium Mature sporangium

1 mm Stalk

Key Haploid (n) Diploid (2n)

Plasmodial Slime Mold

Protists/Unikonts/Amoebozoans
Gymnamoebas are common unicellular amoebozoans in soil as well as freshwater and marine environments Most are heterotrophic and actively seek and consume bacteria and other protists Entamoebas are parasites of vertebrates and some invertebrates Entamoeba histolytica causes amebic dysentery in humans Opisthokonts include animals, fungi, and several groups of protists
Amoebozoans Nucleariids Fungi Choanoflagellates Animals

Opisthokonta

Protists play key roles in ecological relationships

Dinoflagellates nourish coral polyps that build reefs Hypermastigotes digest cellulose in the gut of termites Plasmodium causes malaria Pfesteria shumwayae is a dinoflagellate that causes fish kills
Give three examples of roles that different protists play in natural systems

Sample Questions:
1. Explain why the kingdom Protista is no longer considered a legitimate taxon

2. Explain the process of endosymbiosis and state what living organisms are likely relatives of mitochondria and plastids
3. Distinguish between primary and secondary endosymbiosis 4. Name the five supergroups, list their key characteristics, and describe some representative taxa