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Examining implicatures is one example of seeing how communicative intent can extend beyond denotational meaning.
So far, weve assumed that denotational meaning serves as the starting point for computing implicatures. Denotational meaning is built on the concept of sentences expressing truth values.
These utterances seem to be different in quality from simple assertions: 1. You can't say "that's false" in objecting to them. Note the difference between: I promise to grade your papers within the week. Thats false. Ive always graded your papers within the week. Thats false.
These utterances seem to be different in quality from simple assertions: 1. You can't say "that's false" in objecting to them. 2. They seem natural with hereby, unlike assertions
These utterances seem to be different in quality from simple assertions: 1. You can't say "that's false" in objecting to them. 2. They seem natural with hereby, unlike assertions 3. It seems inappropriate to talk about truth conditions for these types of utterances -- rather, we might talk about "felicity conditions" i.e. conditions for use, not truth
Observation:
We need to acknowledge that there are a variety of "speech acts" e.g. assertion, warning, marrying, promising, etc.
Observation:
We need to acknowledge that there are a variety of "speech acts" e.g. assertion, warning, marrying, promising, etc.
Question:
What is the relationship between speech act type and linguistic form?
Observation:
We need to acknowledge that there are a variety of "speech acts" e.g. assertion, warning, marrying, promising, etc.
Question:
What is the relationship between speech act type and linguistic form?
Working Hypothesis:
Different types of speech acts are linked fairly directly with different linguistic forms
Working Hypothesis:
Different types of speech acts are linked fairly directly with different linguistic forms
However, there is a great deal of evidence that the relationship between speech acts and linguistic structure is NOT direct.
performatives:
This ring is yours now. Do you really want to ask me for an extension?
directives:
Your pants are on backwards.
We can describe utterances of all forms as accomplishing some act other than simply uttering the words: e.g "I won't get into medical school unless I get an A on this class" can be described as: Kim begged the professor for an A. "Requests for extensions make me go ballistic." can be described as: The professor warned the class not to request extensions.
Persuasion
Advertising seeks to persuade, and everyone knows it. The typical ad tries to induce a customer to do one thing -usually, buy a product - instead of a thousand other things. There is nothing obscure about this purpose or what it means for buyers. Consumers obtain immense amounts of information from a process in which the providers of information are blatantly self-interested and the recipients fundamentally skeptical. John Calfee, Fear of Persuasion
What techniques are used by advertisers to disguise/make more indirect the communicative function of advertising? Even when we recognize communicative function, does our knowledge of the persuasive force of ads allow us to suspend the usual psychological processes involved in language understanding?
Do we identify implicatures/entailments differently Do we suspend other cognitive operations that are relevant?
1. Use indirect linguistic forms rather than forms that transparently reflect the speech act. 2. Use general visual/linguistic cues to appear to be serving a purpose othat than persuasion or advertising. 3. Use supporting evidence that either is attributable to some party whose communicative function is other than persuasive (endorsements, testimonials) 4. Get another party whose function is not persuasive to convey positive information about the product in a format that is not recognized as advertising or persuasive in intent
Persuasion in Advertising:
Examples of Indirectness
Direct Speech Acts: Utterances where the form of the speech act is the prototypical one for its function. Indirect Speech Acts: Utterances where the form of the speech act deviates from the prototypical one for its function.
1. Use indirect linguistic forms rather than forms that transparently reflect the speech act.
2. Use general visual/linguistic cues to appear to be serving a purpose other than persuasion or advertising.
The buyer was livid. He had received in his office mail a page ripped from a magazine with an article touting a book on public speaking. Ordinarily, he would have thrown the article away - but this one had one of those familiar yellow "stickies"attached, addressed to him by name. "Try this. It's really good!" the handwritten note said, with the signature "J." "J" happened to be the first initial of his supervisor's name, so the employee promptly ordered the materials, forking over almost $300 for what he assumed to be "obligatory" professional reading. (Taken from NAD website)
These practices, often referred to as "door-opening devices," might sound shady, but they've been adopted by legitimate companies, charities and political groups - all trying to cut through the clutter to get their own promotions noticed. Yet the Council of Better Business Bureaus opposes them, fearing that they cast doubt not only on the "masquer-ad," but on other ads as well. "It potentially sours the credibility of any advertisement," said Ken Hunter, council president. "And that harms the many reputable businesses that use truthful advertising to inform consumers and engage them in a relationship of trust." (Taken from NAD website)
The Federal Trade Commission and the U.S. Postal Inspection Service are vigilant at going after marketers whose advertising campaigns clearly break the law. And legislation passed by Congress in December 1999 is putting more teeth into their efforts to curb deceptive mailings. The law bans advertisers from sending government look-alike mailings, often enclosed in brown window-style envelopes with official-looking markings that imply a connection with the federal government. (Taken from NAD website)
How do advertisers distance themselves from the speech act of persuasion? 3. Use supporting evidence that is attributable to some party whose communicative function is other than persuasive (endorsements, testimonials)
The problem of attribution: How do we know when a real opinion is represented that is at least somewhat distinct from the interests of the company advertising the product?
Distinctions between actor, scriptor, agent Actor: The entity who physically realizes the message Scriptor: The entity who designs the form of the message Agent: The entity whose intent the message represents
In normal discourse (i.e. conversation), all three are the same. Example when actor, scriptor are the same, agent is not: My TAs pass on a message about the class. Secretary sends a form letter to a client. Example when actor, agent is the same, scriptor is not President Bush delivering a speech.
In advertising, generally all three entities are distinct Agent: company selling product Scriptor: Ad agency Actor: Paid actors
However, ads can also incorporate within them speech acts from other entities e.g. testimonials, endorsements
This is important because: a) The speech act may be identified differently depending on perception of who the agent is, what their interests are in conveying the message b) The credibility given to information that is provided depends on perception of the agent, and their credentials in making the statement c) Implicatures arising from the form of a statement may be different depending on perceptions of who the agent is
e.g. vague expressions: This treatment results in moderately good responses from a substantial portion of subjects. as opposed to: This extraordinary medication produces dramatic results in a vast number of patients. or This drug is a miracle!
e.g. evaluative expressions: This is the best mattress. as uttered by a mattress salesman your mother your kids your lover an orthopedic surgeon
FTC definition of endorsement: an endorsement means any advertising message which consumers are likely to believe reflects the opinions, beliefs, findings, or experience of a party other than the sponsoring advertiser. The party whose opinions, beliefs, findings, or experience the message appears to reflect will be called the endorser and may be an individual, group or institution.
1. A film critic's review of a movie is excerpted in an advertisement. When so used, it is viewed by readers as a statement of the critic's own opinions and not those of the film producer, distributor or exhibitor.
2. A manufacturer of automobile tires hires a well known professional automobile racing driver to deliver its advertising message in television commercials. In these commercials, the driver speaks of the smooth ride, strength, and long life of the tires.
3. A television advertisement for golf balls shows a prominent and well-recognized professional golfer hitting the golf balls. This would be an endorsement by the golfer even though he makes no verbal statement in the advertisement.
The endorsement message need not be phrased in the exact words of the endorser, unless the advertisement affirmatively so represents. However, the endorsement may neither be presented out of context nor reworded so as to distort in any way the endorser's opinion or experience with the product. An advertiser may use an endorsement of an expert or celebrity only as long as it has good reason to believe that the endorser continues to subscribe to the views presented.
3. Where the advertisement represents that the endorser uses the endorsed product, then the endorser must have been an actual user of it at the time the endorsement was given, and must continue to sue the product for as long as the advertisement is run 4. The experience with a product or service as stated by an endorser must represent what the consumer is likely to experience. If this is not the case, the generally expected performance must be clearly and conspicuously displayed.
5. Whenever an ad represents directly, or by implication, that the endorser is an expert, then a) the endorsers qualifications must in fact give him the expertise that he is represented as possessing with respect to the endorsement b) the endorsement must be supported by actual use of the experts expertise in evaluating the product
i.e. While the expert can comment on subjective factors such as taste, or factors outside his expertise, it cannot be limited to this The experts evaluation must have included an examination or testing of the product at least as extensive as someone with the same degree of expertise would normally need to conduct in order to support the conclusions presented in the endorsement.
Project guidelines
Journals
should focus on incorporating as much of course material as possible
Ad campaigns
should include extensive discussion, analysis of chosen approaches, techniques, building on concepts learned in class
Project guidelines
Experimental studies
should involve application of scientific methods, research design should involve some outside reading may involve proposed/designed study, without results if data collection is time-consuming
Research papers
must involve outside reading material must identify a clear research question or thesis must also tie in material introduced in class