Job demand, emotional awareness, and Job

satisfaction in internships: the moderating effect

of social support
Fei-Chuan Chen
National Yunlin University of Science and Technology, Yunlin, Taiwan, ROC
edward C. S. Ku
National Kaohsiung Hospitality College, Kaohsiung, Taiwan, ROC
Yi-hwan ShYr
National United University, Miaoli, Taiwan, ROC
Fei-hung Chen
Chaoyang University of Technology, Taichung, Taiwan, ROC
Shuo-Shiung Chou
Tunghai University, Taichung, Taiwan, ROC
This study was aimed at determining how job demand and emotional awareness affect the
job satisfaction of students. Internships are vital for hospitality students because they allow
them to experience real job situations while they are in school, thus providing them with
realistic expectations about their careers. Participants were 632 Taiwanese undergraduates of
hospitality internships who were recruited using a mailed questionnaire survey. The model
and hypotheses were tested using a structural equation modeling (SEM) approach. Results
indicated that emotional job demand and emotional awareness were positively associated
SOCIAL BEHAVIOR AND PERSONALITY, 2009, 37(10), 1429-1440
Society for Personality Research (Inc.)
DOI 10.2224/sbp.2009.37.10.1429
1429
Fei-Chuan Chen, Associate Professor, Graduate School of Technological and Vocational Education,
National Yunlin University of Science and Technology, Yunlin, Taiwan, ROC; Edward C. S. Ku,
Assistant Professor, Department of Travel Management, National Kaohsiung Hospitality College,
Kaohsiung, Taiwan, ROC; Yi-Hwan Shyr, Associate Professor, Department of Industrial Design,
National United University, Miaoli, Taiwan, ROC; Fei-Hung Chen, Associate Professor, Department
of Social Work, Chaoyang University of Technology, Taichung, Taiwan, ROC; Shuo-Shiung Chou,
Lecturer in the Department of Hospitality Management, Tunghai University, Taichung, Taiwan,
ROC.
Appreciation is due to anonymous reviewers.
Please address correspondence and reprint requests to: Edward C. S. Ku, Department of Travel
Management, National Kaohsiung Hospitality College, 1 Sung-Ho Road, Hsiao-Kang Kaohsiung,
Taiwan, ROC. Phone: 886-7-806-0505 ext. 1220; Email: edwardku@mail.nkhc.edu.tw
THE MODERATNG EFFECT OF SOCAL SUPPORT
1430
with emotional display rules, and emotional display rules were positively associated with job
satisfaction, with social support playing a moderating role.
Keyword: emotional awareness, display rules, job satisfaction, job demand internship.

A successful hospitality and tourism academic program produces graduates
who have the benefit of having had high-quality learning experiences, and who
consequently have the knowledge, skills, and ability to meet the needs of the
industry (Harris & Zhao, 2004; Teng, 2008). To achieve this, schools provide
tourism and hospitality courses that emphasize the importance of practical
training, and make efforts to develop internship programs for students (Lam &
Ching, 2007). A challenge currently being faced in Taiwan is the development
of human capital, especially for the rapidly growing hospitality and tourism
industry (Tourism Bureau of Transportation and Communication, 2007); it has
been noted that undergraduate hospitality and tourism programs in Taiwan have
grown dramatically since 2000 (Teng, 2008).
Internships are vital for allowing hospitality students to experience real
job situations while they are in school so that their expectations about their
prospective career are relatively realistic (Lam & Ching, 2007). However,
previous studies have shown that hospitality students who have more experience
within the profession are much less committed to the hospitality industry (Teng,
2008). The reasons for this are mostly related to the pressures of the job, and
some therefore believe that the expression of emotions should be a part of the
work role (Ashforth & Humphrey, 1993; Morris & Feldman, 1997). Thus, one of
the purposes of the present study was to determine how job demands influence
job satisfaction among students.
Previous researchers have addressed the benefits of participating in internships
or experiential learning, such as increased understanding of how organizations
function, increased ability to view career expectations realistically (Lee, 2007),
increased network of professional contacts, increased ability to take the initiative
and adapt to change, improved leadership skills, and increased financial
management skills. The hospitality and tourism industry needs a capable,
educated, and well-trained workforce in order to be successful in a competitive
market. However, students joining an internship program for the first time need
to be prepared for a high-pressure environment.
The main research goals of this study were to determine how job demand
and emotional awareness affect the job satisfaction of students. A questionnaire
survey was mailed to potential participants attending internship courses in
Taiwan, and the model and hypotheses were tested using a structural equation
modeling (SEM) approach.

THE MODERATNG EFFECT OF SOCAL SUPPORT
1431
TheoreTical Background and liTeraTure review
Emotional labor Emotional labor is defined as a gesture in a social exchange;
it has a function within the exchange and should not be understood merely as a
facet of personality (Hochschild, 1979). It works in the same way that a worker
must do his/her work in order to complete his/her job; it is a type of labor
(Mastracci, Newman, & Guy, 2006). The outcome of interest in jobs that involve
emotional labor is referred to as affective delivery; in other words the extent to
which employees maintain these expressive display requirements at work.
From the emotional labor perspective, emotions play an important role in
human interactions and are a central aspect in all levels of human behavior:
sociological, psychological, and physiological. Emotions are a social need and
represent an important channel of communication between the self and others.
In the context of emotional labor, employees experience emotional dissonance
when the emotional expression required by their jobs display rules clashes with
emotions they actually feel (Morris & Feldman, 1997). Emotional labor can also
be defined as the display of expected emotions by service organizations during
service encounters (Ashforth & Humphrey, 1993). It is performed through surface
acting, deep acting, or the expression of genuine emotion. Thus, employees who
are unfairly treated by customers report higher levels of anger and unhappiness;
they perceive aggressive customer behavior to be highly stressful, leading them
to engage in emotional labor (Grandey, 2003).
Internship for hospitality students Internships are vital for allowing hospitality
students to experience real job situations while they are in school so that they
will have realistic expectations about their prospective career (Lam & Ching,
2007). Internships provide an opportunity to close the gap between college-
learned theory and practical reality by gaining information about skills, interests,
and career choices in real working situations, while also obtaining an edge over
inexperienced competitors who lack this experience (Ko, 2007; Lee, 2007).
Industry professionals have commented that the participation of hospitality
students in internship programs makes them more marketable (Ko, 2007).
In addition, internships provide an opportunity to network, learn about new
fields, and gain work experience. Berta (2003) found that hospitality students in
Florida had high expectations about their potential for advancement, which was
related to future career development in the hospitality industry, as compared to
the perception that they will become managers rather than having to start at the
bottom and work their way up after completing the internship. Internship-related
research studies have revealed that hospitality educators strongly support the
inclusion of an experiential learning component in the hospitality curriculum,
because such training develops students managerial skills (Petrillose &
Montgomery, 1998).
THE MODERATNG EFFECT OF SOCAL SUPPORT
1432
Teng (2008) reported that work-related stress has the potential to affect the
performance of employees at all levels, including those who are employed in
internship-level positions in the hospitality industry. In terms of the impact of
emotional, financial, and academic stressors of graduate psychology training
on students, it has been found that female students had higher stress scores than
males. It has also been found that articulating the responsibilities of interns
and internship supervisors prior to their participation in the internship is a key
element of a successful internship (Beggs, Ross, & Goodwin, 2008 as cited in
Young & Hurlic, 2007).

research Model
With regard to internship activities, emotional labor is the display of expected
emotions by service organization personnel during service encounters. From the
identity control and emotional labor perspective, an employees job satisfaction
is based on job demand (person-job interaction), emotional awareness, the
employees display rules, and social support. Figure 1 depicts these relationships,
as investigated in our research model.

Figure 1. Research model.
Emotional job demand Job demand consists of the job characteristics that are
likely to evoke negative emotional reactions (Bernardin, 1987). The demands
of the job may lead to negative psychological outcomes, such as depression,
when the worker is limited in how s/he can reduce or cope with such potential
stressors.
Emotional display rules Emotional display rules determine the leeway that
an individual has to express his or her true personal feelings when delivering a
service, whilst being bound by both culture and the rules within organizations
(Yeomans, 2007). Emotional abilities may, therefore, be best understood within
the emotional display rules of a particular organization and work setting, an area
Emotional
Job Demand
Emotional
Awareness
Emotional
Display Rules
Job
Satisfaction
Social
Support
H1
H2
H4
H3
THE MODERATNG EFFECT OF SOCAL SUPPORT
1433
that has been recognized as being a part of increasing importance within the field
of emotional labor (Ashforth & Humphrey, 1993; Clarke, 2006; Hochschild,
1983). Emotional job demands are therefore an antecedent of emotional display
rules. This forms the basis of Hypothesis 1 of our research model:
Hypothesis 1: Emotional job demand will be positively associated with emotional
display rules.
Emotional awareness Emotional awareness is the ability to recognize emotions
in oneself and in others (Lane, Sechrest, & Reidel, 1996). An individuals ability
to recognize and describe emotion in himself/herself and in others is a cognitive
skill, and awareness behavior in the workplace has been positively linked to
organizational citizenship behaviors (Blakely, Andrews, & Fuller, 2003), life
satisfaction (Adelman & Ahuvia, 1995), and job stress (Dwyer & Fox, 2006). A
person with high awareness will adjust his or her behavior based on the signals
s/he perceives from people and situations. This forms the basis of Hypothesis 2:
Hypothesis 2: Emotional awareness will be positively associated with emotional
display rules.
Job satisfaction Job satisfaction is a measure of attitude that relates to
perceptions of past events and rewards as well as current impressions of a job
(Judge, Woolf, & Hurst, 2009). Employees with high levels of emotional display
rules have been found to know not only what to do in different social situations
at work, but also how to do it in a way that disguises any potentially manipulative
motives. This external control of emotional expression may lead to decreased
intrinsic motivation to do ones job (Ryan & Deci, 2008). From this perspective,
a front-line employee identifies how certain emotional abilities may be learned
on the job, in particular those associated with how emotions are managed. This
forms the basis of Hypothesis 3:
Hypothesis 3: Employees with high levels of emotional display rules will
experience greater job satisfaction.
Social support Social support is an interpersonal coping resource whereby one
person helps another and enhances that persons well-being; it often involves
having someone to talk to who is supportive and understanding (Totterdell &
Holman, 1998). Grandey, Dickter, and Sin (2004) suggested that organizations
can provide employees with the resources and autonomy to respond appropriately
to difficult and abusive customers, and the opportunity to take a respite from
the front line to recharge their emotional batteries. This forms the basis of
Hypothesis 4:
Hypothesis 4: Social support will moderate the effects of emotional display rules
on job satisfaction.

THE MODERATNG EFFECT OF SOCAL SUPPORT
1434
method
daTa collecTion and saMple characTerisTics
The main research goal of this study was to further develop the emotional
employee satisfaction model based on empirically justifiable instruments.
We formulated an emotional employee satisfaction model and used a mailed
questionnaire to survey hospitality students in Taiwan. Of the 798 undergraduates
who were enrolled in the same 4-year hospitality management, hotel management,
and food and beverage management programs (excluding tourism and leisure
programs) in universities or vocational and technological colleges, and those
who had completed an internship program of at least 1 month in the hospitality
industry, 632 completed and returned their questionnaires (giving us a return rate
of 79.0%). The sample characteristics are described in Table 1.
Table 1
characTerisTics of The saMple (N = 632)
n Percentage
Gender
Male 203 32.1%
Female 429 67.9%
age
Under 20 152 23.9%
21-25 468 74.1%
26-30 12 1.9%
Internship workplace
International tourism hotel 289 45.7%
Standard tourist hotels 143 22.6%
Independent restaurant 37 5.9%
Chain restaurant 41 6.5%
Travel agent 22 3.5%
Health center 36 10.7%
National park 2 0.3%
Recreation park 7 1.1%
Other 75 12.3%
Internship Period
Less than 3 months 72 11.4%
3-6 months 297 47.0%
6-12 months 194 30.7%
More than 12 months 69 10.9%
Measures
Constructs of interest in our study were measured using a multi-item scale, as
indicated in Table 2.

THE MODERATNG EFFECT OF SOCAL SUPPORT
1435
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THE MODERATNG EFFECT OF SOCAL SUPPORT
1436
results
TesTs of The Measuring scales
The internal consistency (Cronbachs alphas) of all constructs were over 0.9,
which is above the acceptable threshold. Discriminant validity was determined
by factor analysis. Because multi-item constructs were used to measure each
variable, factor analysis with varimax rotation was employed to check unidimen-
sionality among the items. Confirmatory factor analysis using SPSS version 10
was used to examine the convergent validity of each construct.
The factor structure was not difficult to interpret, corresponding with emotional
job demand, emotional awareness, emotional display rules, social support, and
job satisfaction. The model explained 73.07% of the variance. The range of factor
loadings was 0.611-0.886.
TesT of The sTrucTural Model
Structural equation modeling was performed to test the hypothesized model
presented in Figure 1. LISREL version 8.50 software was used for this analysis.
The overall goodness-of-fit was assessed in terms of the following 7 common
model fit measures: Our finding that GFI = 0.90, AGFI = 0.89, RMR = 0.05,
RMSEA = 0.049, PNFI = 0.76, and PGFI = 0.68. Thus, overall the data indicate
a favorable fit for our hypothesized model. The direct model shows an acceptable
fit except for Chi-square and CFI values, but the full model appeared to be
superior to the direct model in explaining customer relationship management. As
presented in Table 3, the results of this hypothesized full job satisfaction model
indicate a favorable fit of the model.
Table 3
resulTs of sTrucTural equaTion MoniToring
Hypothesis Estimates STD Solutions t value results
H1 Emotional job demand will be positively
associated with emotional display rules. 0.75 0.75 10.63
*
Supported
H2 Emotional awareness will be positively
associated with emotional display rules. 0.70 0.70 10.29
*
Supported
H3 Employees with high levels of emotional
display rules will be positively associated
with job satisfaction. 0.15 0.15 2.42
*
Supported
H4 Social support will moderate the effect
of emotional display rules on
job satisfaction. 0.17 0.19 2.99
*
Supported
Model Measures
Convergent validity, which is the degree to which multiple attempts to measure
THE MODERATNG EFFECT OF SOCAL SUPPORT
1437
the same concept are in agreement, was evaluated by examining item-total
correlations, based on the correlation of each item with the sum of the remaining
items. This approach assumes that the total score is valid and thus the extent to
which the item correlates with the total score is indicative of convergent validity
for the item. The correlations for each of the research variables gained item-to-
total correlation scores of greater than 0.5.
The significance and the relative strength of individual links specified by the
research model were also evaluated. Results provide meaningful support for the
research hypotheses.
discussion
Overall, analysis of the measurement model indicates that the proposed metrics
have a good degree of validity and reliability. These measures can be used to
evaluate the factors that influence student job satisfaction during internship. The
results of the study have some important implications for student job satisfaction
and provide a reliable instrument for operationalizing related key constructs.
Managerial iMplicaTions
In terms of business discipline, this research can also be directed toward
helping managers and practitioners to understand student job satisfaction and
improve internship programs through the students learning and the support
of work colleagues. Certain managerial and technological implications can be
drawn from this study.
First, schools can provide a practice environment within a professional course
and invite firms to join the internship program, thus introducing job demand
prior to the experience of internship. Most hospitality students will perform a
front-line job during their internship in Taiwan. Front-line service jobs typically
require emotional labor due to the high levels of interpersonal interactions
inherent in service work. However, the demands of the job may lead to negative
psychological outcomes such as depression (Ross & Mirowsky, 1989) when the
worker is limited in how s/he can reduce or cope with such potential stressors.
Second, schools can provide emotional support related to individuals abilities
to recognize and describe emotion in themselves and in others. Awareness
behavior in the workplace has been positively linked to organizational citizenship
behaviors. Moreover, an emotion-related course can be characterized as a
combination of psychological job demands and tasks and the decisions students
can make for themselves in regard to how to do their front-line work.
Third, it was found that social support plays an important role in the
achievement of job satisfaction. Through internship programs, supervisors can
make an active contribution to the professional development of employees
THE MODERATNG EFFECT OF SOCAL SUPPORT
1438
by explaining the work situation to them and providing them with feedback.
Colleagues can advise students about suitable answers when the student is asked
a work-related question. In addition, they can assist the student with learning
methods for reducing work-related pressures.
Generally, internship is an opportunity for hospitality students to network, learn
about new fields, and gain work experience, allowing them to experience real
job situations while they are still in school so that they will have more realistic
expectations about their prospective career. A successful internship program will
provide an opportunity to close the gap between college-learned theory and the
practical experience of a job.
sTudy liMiTaTions and furTher research
While this study has meaningful implications for the development of multi-
dimensional measures of factors that influence job satisfaction, the validity of
an instrument cannot be firmly established from a single study. All of the data
used for our tests were collected in the Taiwan hotel industry, and future studies
would therefore benefit from researchers collecting data from various industries
or within a specific context over an extended period. The analysis of such data
may enable conclusions to be drawn about both causality and more generalized
relationships among variables.

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