Battery Types

1. Lead-acid 2. Nickel metal hydride 3 Zebra 4 Lithium ion

Leadacid battery

lead acid car battery

specific energy

30-40 Wh/kg

energy density

60-75 Wh/l

specific power

180 W/kg

Charge/discharge efficiency

50%-92% [4]

Energy/consumer-price

7(sld)-18(fld) Wh/US$ [5]

Self-discharge rate

3%-20%/month [6]

Cycle durability

500-800 cycles

Nominal cell voltage

2.105 V

Nickel-metal hydride battery

Modern, high capacity NiMH rechargeable cells

specific energy

30100(100[1]) Wh/kg

energy density

140300(385[1]) Wh/L

specific power

2501000 W/kg

Charge/discharge efficiency

66%[2]

Energy/consumer-price

2.75(0.75-1[1]) Wh/US$[2]

Self-discharge rate

30%(1-2%[1])/month (temperature dependent)[3]

Time durability

Citation Needed

Cycle durability

5001,000(1500[1])

Nominal cell voltage

1.2 V

Molten salt battery

ZEBRA Na-NiCl2 battery, Museum Autovision,Altluheim, Germany

specific energy

90 Wh/kg[1]

energy density

160 Wh/l[1]

specific power

155 W/kg, peak power 335 C [2]

Energy/consumer-price

3.33 Wh/US$

Time durability

>8 years

Cycle durability

~3000 cycles

Nominal cell voltage

2.58 V

Lithium-ion battery

specific energy

100-250 Wh/kg[1] (0.36-0.90 MJ/kg)

energy density

250-620 Wh/L[2] (0.90-2.23 MJ/L)

specific power Charge/discharge efficiency Energy/consumer-price Self-discharge rate

~250-~340 W/kg[1] 80-90%[3]

2.5 Wh/US$[4] 8% at 21 C 15% at 40 C 31% at 60 C (per month)[5]

Cycle durability

400-1200 cycles
[6]

Nominal cell voltage

3.6 / 3.7 V

Battery cost and parity

The cost of the battery when distributed over the life cycle of the vehicle (compared with an up to 10 years life cycle of an internal combustion engine vehicle) can easily be more than the cost of the electricity. This is because of the high initial cost relative to the life of the batteries. Using the 7000 cycle or 10 year life given in the previous section, 365 cycles per year would take 19 years to reach the 7000 cycles. Using the lower estimate of a ten year life gives 3650 cycles over ten years giving 146000 total miles driven. At $500 per kWh an 8 kWh battery costs $4000 resulting in $4000/146000 miles or $0.027 per mile. In reality

a larger pack would be used to avoid stressing the battery by avoiding complete discharge or 100% charge. Adding a 2 kWh in battery adds $1000 to the cost resulting in $5000/146000 miles or $0.034/mile. Estimated time is 10 years before battery price comes down to 1/3 of present. Battery professor Poul Norby states that lithium batteries will need to double their energy density and bring down the price from $500 (2010) to $100 per kWh capacity in order to make an impact on petrol car. The LiFePO4 technology has yielded batteries that have a higher miles/$ over the life of the packs but they require a complex control system. The manufacture of the batteries is still being developed and is not a reliable source. One article indicates that 10 kWh of battery energy provides a range of about 20 miles (32 km) in a Toyota Prius, but this is not a primary source, and does not fit with estimates elsewhere of about 5 miles (8.0 km) /(kWh). The Chevrolet Volt is expected to achieve 50 MPG when running on the auxiliary power unit (a small onboard generator) - at 33% thermodynamic efficiency that would mean 12 kWh for 50 miles (80 km), or about 240 watt-hours per mile. For prices of 1 kWh of charge with various different battery technologies.

Table of rechargeable battery types

Voltagea Type (V) (MJ/kg) (Wh/kg (Wh/L) (W/kg) ) (%) (Wh/$) (%/month) (#) (years) Energy densityb Powerc Effi.d E/$e Disch.f Cyclesg Lifeh

Lead-

2.1

0.11-

30-40

60-75

180

70%-

5-8

3%-4%

500-800

5-8 (automotive

acid

0.14

92%

battery), 20 (stationary)

Alkaline 1.5

0.31

85

250

50

99.9% 7.7

<0.3

100-1000 <5

Ni-iron

1.2

0.18

50

100

65%

5-7.3[6] 20%-40%

50+

Ni1.2 cadmium

0.140.22

40-60

50-150 150

70%90%

1.252.5[6]

20%

1500

NiH2

1.5

75

20,000

15+

NiMH

1.2

0.110.29

30-80

140300

2501000

66%

2.75

30%

500-1000

Ni-zinc

1.7

0.22

60

170

900

2-3.3

100-500

Li ion

3.6

0.58

150-250

250360

1800

8090%

2.8-5[7] 5%-10%

1200

2-3

Li 3.7 polymer

0.470.72

130-200 300

3000+

99.8% 2.8-5.0 5%

500~1000 2-3

LiFePO4 3.25

80-120

170 [8]

1400

0.7-3.0

2000+[9]

Range Parity
The lithium-ion battery in the AC Propulsion tzero provides 400 to 500 km (200 to 300 mi) of range per charge (single charge range). The list price of this vehicle when it was released in 2003 was $220,000.