History

An early description of a hydrometer appears in a letter from Synesius of Cyrene to the Greek scholar Hypatia of Alexandria. In Synesius' fifteenth letter, he requests Hypatia to make a hydrometer for him. Hypatia is given credit for inventing the hydrometer (or hydroscope) sometime in the late 4th century or early 5th century. The instrument in question is a cylindrical tube, which has the shape of a flute and is about the same size. It has notches in a perpendicular line, by means of which we are able to test the weight of the waters. A cone forms a lid at one of the extremities, closely fitted to the tube. The cone and the tube have one base only. This is called the baryllium. Whenever you place the tube in water, it remains erect. You can then count the notches at your ease, and in this way ascertain the weight of the water. It was used by Ab Rayh n al-B r n in the 11th century and described by Al-Khazini in the 12th century. It later appeared again in the work of Jacques Alexandre Csar Charles in the 18th century.

Principle
The operation the hydrometer is based on Archimedes' principle that a solid suspended in a fluid will be buoyed up by a force equal to the weight of the fluid displaced. Thus, the lower the density of the substance, the farther the hydrometer will sink. (See also Relative density and hydrometers.)

Types of Hydrometers Plain Form hydrometers do not have a built-in thermometer; a separate thermometer should be used to measure the temperature.

Combined Form hydrometers have a thermometer built-in to the body or stem to measure the temperature of the sample. Specific Gravity is the standard scale for what a hydrometer measures. Specific gravity is the ratio of the density of your sample at 60F to the density of water at 60F. Degrees Baum hydrometers are used for liquids heavier than water, such as syrups. Salt hydrometers are graduated in % saturation or % by weight of salt in solution. Brix Scale hydrometers are used by the sugar industry. The degrees of the scale are equal to the percentage of sucrose by weight at standard temperatures.

Degrees API scale hydrometers are selected by the American Petroleum Institute (API), the United States Bureau of Mines, and the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) as the standard scale for petroleum products. Alcohol (Tralle and Proof Scales) hydrometers measure directly in percentage ethyl alcohol by weight in water from 0 to 100%. The Proof scale indicates the proof of alcohol from 0 to 200 proof. Proof is twice the percentage of alcohol by volume in solution.

Did You Know... Degrees Baum = 145145 sp gr 60F / 60F

Degrees API =

141.5 -131.5 sp gr 60F / 60F

THE HYDROMETER Function - Quality - Instructions

Function: The hydrometer (with Oechslescale) indicates how many grammes over or under a kilogram a litre of liquid weighs. This is the same as the specific gravity minus 1 000. The specific gravity of water is 1 000 grammes (1 kg) per litre. This is 0 on the hydrometer (with Oechslescale). 990 grammes is 10 grammes under 1 kg, i.e., minus 10 on the hydrometer (with Oechslescale). Minus readings are taken from the upper coloured scale. 1080 grammes is +80 on the hydrometer (with Oechslescale) on the lower large white scale. Quality: Select a 300 mm long (preferably German) hydrometer. Do not use a cheap 200-250 mm model. Buy one of the same quality as the Widder range. Test the hydrometer in water to check it reads 0. Instructions: Pour the liquid to be measured in a tall measuring glass. The type of container is irrelevant as long as it is high enough to allow the hydrometer to float freely. Lower the hydrometer into the liquid. When it is floating freely, a reading is taken at the surface. The white scale indicates + and the coloured shows minus, that is, hydrometer degrees over and under 0.

Principal of manometer
Manometers have a long history in the area of fluid mechanical measurements. They essentially consist of a `U' shaped glass tube, which is filled with some liquid, typically oil, water, or mercury. At its simplest, one end of the U tube will be open to the atmosphere, while the other will be connected to whatever it is that one wishes to measure the pressure of, say a pressurized tank of gas. Manometers can also be used to make pressure measurements of liquid flows. In this case, obviously, it is important that the manometer fluid be different (and heavier!) than the liquid being measured. Manometers are cheap, simple, and reliable. As a consequence, they are widely used, particularly in undergraduate fluid mechanical laboratories. The most serious drawback of a manometer, on the other hand, is that is has a very poor temporal response. In other words, a manometer can not pick up rapid changes in pressure. As a result, they are best suited to applications where steady-state pressure is being measured. The analysis of a manometer is quite easy, requiring only the basic equation of hydrostatics, namely that, within a layer of constant-density fluid,

It is important to note the constant-density restriction here. One can not apply this equation across the fluid interfaces in a manometer. Rather, one must, fluid by fluid, work one's way through the manometer in order to arrive at the pressure in the test-section.

For example, consider the sketch above. The fluid in the vessel is presumed to be a gas and the fluid in the manometer is presumed to be water. The length h is the `reading' of the manometer, in other words, the difference in elevation between the two legs. We begin by taking p1 to be zero (gage pressure) since it is open to the atmosphere. Next, p2 is found, from (1), to be wh. And, since within a fluid layer there can be no horizontal variations in pressure, we see that p3 = p2! Finally, since the fluid in the reservoir is a gas (the specific weight is negligible compared to that of the manometer fluid), we immediately jump to the conclusion that p4 is also equal to p2 = wh. Note of caution: if the fluid in the reservoir and in the upper portion of the left-hand leg of the manometer were a liquid, we would have to consider its effect on the pressure at 4.

In the above, you can investigate the effect that the manometer fluid selection has upon the measured deflection. Note as well that a manometer can be used to measure vacuum pressures (negative P1). In this case, the deflections of the legs switch direction.

History: An Ancient Tool

Throughout history, the principal of the manometer or water level has been used for centuries in ship building. Additionally, the ancient Romans used the manometer in the construction of their aqueducts. You may also be surprised to know even the Pharaohs of Egypt utilized this water level method in the construction of their Great Pyramids!

Modern Applications:
The manometer of today is used in a number of various applications; construction of bridges, installing swimming pools, and many other professional applications. One of the most popular applications is the performance of relative elevation surveys or floor level surveys on the floor slabs of residential homes. Numerous elevation points are made on the home slab to measure the levelness of a concrete slab foundation system. A comparison of these findings are then compared to normal historical building variations.

Manometers A manometer is a device for measuring fluid pressure consisting of a bent tube containing one or more liquids of different densities. A known pressure (which may be atmospheric) is applied to one end of the manometer tube and the unknown pressure (to be determined) is applied to the other end. Differential pressure manometer measures only the difference between the two pressures. Manometer types Simple U - tube manometer Inverted U -2. The "U"-Tube Manometer Using a "U"-Tube enables the pressure of both liquids and gases to be measured with the same instrument. The "U" is connected as in the figure below and filled with a fluid called the manometric fluid. The fluid whose pressure is being measured should have a mass density less than that of the manometric fluid and the two fluids should not be able to mix readily - that is, they must be immiscible. tube manometer U - tube with one leg enlarged Two fluid U - tube manometer Inclined U - tube manometer 1. Simple U - tube manometer Using a "U"-Tube enables the pressure of both liquids and gases to be measured with the same instrument. The "U" is connected as in the figure below and filled with a fluid called the manometric fluid. The fluid whose pressure is being measured should have a mass density less than that of the manometric fluid and the two fluids should not be able to mix readily - that is, they must beimmiscib le . Equating the pressure at the level XX (pressure at the same level in a continuous body of fluid is equal),

Measurement of Pressure The pressure of a fluid is measured by following devices: i. Manometers ii. Mechanical gauges Manometers A manometer is a device for measuring fluid pressure consisting of a bent tube containing one or more liquids of different densities. A known pressure (which may be atmospheric) is applied to one end of the manometer tube and the unknown pressure (to be determined) is applied to the other end. Differential pressure manometer measures only the difference between the two pressures. Manometer types Simple U - tube manometer Inverted U -2. The "U"-Tube Manometer Using a "U"-Tube enables the pressure of both liquids and gases to be measured with the same instrument. The "U" is connected as in the figure below and filled with a fluid called the manometric fluid. The fluid whose pressure is being measured should have a mass density less than that of the manometric fluid and the two fluids should not be able to mix readily - that is, they must be immiscible. tube manometer U - tube with one leg enlarged Two fluid U - tube manometer Inclined U - tube manometer 1. Simple U - tube manometer Using a "U"-Tube enables the pressure of both liquids and gases to be measured with the same instrument. The "U" is connected as in the figure below and filled with a fluid called the manometric fluid. The fluid whose pressure is being measured should have a mass density less than that of the manometric fluid and the two fluids should not be able to mix readily - that is, they must beimmiscib le . Equating the pressure at the level XX (pressure at the same level in a continuous body of fluid is equal),

For the left hand side Px = P1 + g(a+h) For the right side Px = P2 + ga + mgh

Since Px = Px P1 + g(a+h) = P2 + ga + mgh

P1 - P2 = mgh - gh i.e. P1 - P2 = ( m - )gh. The maximum value of P1 - P2 is limited by the height of the manometer. To measure larger pressure differences we can choose a manometer with higher density, and to measure smaller pressure differences with accuracy we can choose a manometer fluid which is having a density closer to the fluid density. 2. Inverted U-tube Manometer Inverted U-tube manometer is used for measuring pressure differences in liquids. The space above the liquid in the manometer is filled with air which can be admitted or expelled through the tap on the top, in order to adjust the level of the liquid in the manometer.

Equating the pressure at the level XX(pressure at the same level in a continuous body of static fluid is equal), For the left hand side: Px = P1 - g(h+a) For the right hand side: Px= P2 - ( ga + mgh)

Since Px = Px P1 - g(h+a) = P2 - ( ga + mgh) P1 - P2 = ( m)gh If the manometric fluid is chosen in such a way that rm << r then, P1 - P2 = gh. For inverted U - tube manometer the manometric fluid is usually air. 3. U-tube with one Leg Enlarged Industrially, the simple U - tube manometer has the disadvantage that the movement of the liquid in both the limbs must be read. By making the diameter of one leg large as compared with the other, it is possible to make the movement

LECTURE

I.

HISTORY
An early description of a hydrometer appears in a letter from Synesius of Cyrene to the Greek scholar Hypatia of Alexandria. In Synesius' fifteenth letter, he requests Hypatia to make a hydrometer for him. Hypatia is given credit for inventing the hydrometer (or hydroscope) sometime in the late 4th century or early 5th century. The instrument in question is a cylindrical tube, which has the shape of a flute and is about the same size. It has notches in a perpendicular line, by means of which we are able to test the weight of the waters. A cone forms a lid at one of the extremities, closely fitted to the tube. The cone and the tube have one base only. This is called the baryllium. Whenever you place the tube in water, it remains erect. You can then count the notches at your ease, and in this way ascertain the weight of the water. It was used by Ab Rayh n al-B r n in the 11th century and described by Al-Khazini in the 12th century. It later appeared again in the work of Jacques Alexandre Csar Charles in the 18th century.

II.

PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION
The operation the hydrometer is based on Archimedes' principle that a solid suspended in a fluid will be buoyed up by a force equal to the weight of the fluid displaced. Thus, the lower the density of the substance, the farther the hydrometer will sink.

III.

TYPES / CLASSIFICATION
Plain Form hydrometers do not have a built-in thermometer; a separate thermometer should be used to measure the temperature. Combined Form hydrometers have a thermometer built-in to the body or stem to measure the temperature of the sample. Specific Gravity is the standard scale for what a hydrometer measures. Specific gravity is the ratio of the density of your sample at 60F to the density of water at 60F. Degrees Baum hydrometers are used for liquids heavier than water, such as syrups. Salt hydrometers are graduated in % saturation or % by weight of salt in solution.

Brix Scale hydrometers are used by the sugar industry. The degrees of the scale are equal to the percentage of sucrose by weight at standard temperatures. Degrees API scale hydrometers are selected by the American Petroleum Institute (API), the United States Bureau of Mines, and the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) as the standard scale for petroleum products. Alcohol (Tralle and Proof Scales) hydrometers measure directly in percentage ethyl alcohol by weight in water from 0 to 100%. The Proof scale indicates the proof of alcohol from 0 to 200 proof. Proof is twice the percentage of alcohol by volume in solution.

IV.

FUNCTION / APPLICATION
Function: The hydrometer (with Oechslescale) indicates how many grammes over or under a kilogram a litre of liquid weighs. This is the same as the specific gravity minus 1 000. The specific gravity of water is 1 000 grammes (1 kg) per litre. This is 0 on the hydrometer (with Oechslescale). 990 grammes is 10 grammes under 1 kg, i.e., minus 10 on the hydrometer (with Oechslescale). Minus readings are taken from the upper coloured scale. 1080 grammes is +80 on the hydrometer (with Oechslescale) on the lower large white scale. Quality: Select a 300 mm long (preferably German) hydrometer. Do not use a cheap 200-250 mm model. Buy one of the same quality as the Widder range. Test the hydrometer in water to check it reads 0. Instructions: Pour the liquid to be measured in a tall measuring glass. The type of container is irrelevant as long as it is high enough to allow the hydrometer to float freely. Lower the hydrometer into the liquid. When it is floating freely, a reading is taken at the surface. The white scale indicates + and the coloured shows minus, that is, hydrometer degrees over and under 0.

V.

LOCAL SUPPLIER / BRAND

Bambang, Philippines LECTURE

I.

HISTORY
An Ancient Tool Throughout history, the principal of the manometer or water level has been used for centuries in ship building. Additionally, the ancient Romans used the manometer in the construction of their aqueducts. You may also be surprised to know even the Pharaohs of Egypt utilized this water level method in the construction of their Great Pyramids!

II.

PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION
Manometers have a long history in the area of fluid mechanical measurements. They essentially consist of a `U' shaped glass tube, which is filled with some liquid, typically oil, water, or mercury. At its simplest, one end of the U tube will be open to the atmosphere, while the other will be connected to whatever it is that one wishes to measure the pressure of, say a pressurized tank of gas. Manometers can also be used to make pressure measurements of liquid flows. In this case, obviously, it is important that the manometer fluid be different (and heavier!) than the liquid being measured. Manometers are cheap, simple, and reliable. As a consequence, they are widely used, particularly in undergraduate fluid mechanical laboratories. The most serious drawback of a manometer, on the other hand, is that is has a very poor temporal response. In other words, a manometer can not pick up rapid changes in pressure. As a result, they are best suited to applications where steady-state pressure is being measured. The analysis of a manometer is quite easy, requiring only the basic equation of hydrostatics, namely that, within a layer of constant-density fluid,

It is important to note the constant-density restriction here. One can not apply this equation across the fluid interfaces in a manometer. Rather, one must, fluid by fluid, work one's way through the manometer in order to arrive at the pressure in the test-section.

For example, consider the sketch above. The fluid in the vessel is presumed to be a gas and the fluid in the manometer is presumed to be water. The length h is the `reading' of the manometer, in other words, the difference in elevation between the two legs. We begin by taking p1 to be zero (gage pressure) since it is open to the atmosphere. Next, p2 is found, from (1), to be wh. And, since within a fluid layer there can be no horizontal variations in pressure, we see that p3 = p2! Finally, since the fluid in the reservoir is a gas (the specific weight is negligible compared to that of the manometer fluid), we immediately jump to the conclusion that p4 is also equal to p2 = wh. Note of caution: if the fluid in the reservoir and in the upper portion of the left-hand leg of the manometer were a liquid, we would have to consider its effect on the pressure at 4. Modern Applications: The manometer of today is used in a number of various applications; construction of bridges, installing swimming pools, and many other professional applications. One of the most popular applications is the performance of relative elevation surveys or floor level surveys on the floor slabs of residential homes. Numerous elevation points are made on the home slab to measure the levelness of a concrete slab foundation system. A comparison of these findings are then compared to normal historical building variations.

III.

TYPES / CLASSIFICATION
Manometers A manometer is a device for measuring fluid pressure consisting of a bent tube containing one or more liquids of different densities. A known pressure (which may be atmospheric) is applied to one end of the manometer tube and the unknown pressure (to be determined) is applied to the other end. Differential pressure manometer measures only the difference between the two

pressures. Manometer types Simple U - tube manometer Inverted U -2. The "U"-Tube Manometer Using a "U"-Tube enables the pressure of both liquids and gases to be measured with the same instrument. The "U" is connected as in the figure below and filled with a fluid called the manometric fluid. The fluid whose pressure is being measured should have a mass density less than that of the manometric fluid and the two fluids should not be able to mix readily - that is, they must be immiscible. tube manometer U - tube with one leg enlarged Two fluid U - tube manometer Inclined U - tube manometer 1. Simple U - tube manometer Using a "U"-Tube enables the pressure of both liquids and gases to be measured with the same instrument. The "U" is connected as in the figure below and filled with a fluid called the manometric fluid. The fluid whose pressure is being measured should have a mass density less than that of the manometric fluid and the two fluids should not be able to mix readily - that is, they must beimmiscib le . Equating the pressure at the level XX (pressure at the same level in a continuous body of fluid is equal),

For the left hand side Px = P1 + g(a+h) For the right side Px = P2 + ga + mgh Since Px = Px P1 + g(a+h) = P2 + ga + mgh P1 - P2 = mgh - gh i.e. P1 - P2 = ( m - )gh.

The maximum value of P1 - P2 is limited by the height of the manometer. To measure larger pressure differences we can choose a manometer with higher density, and to measure smaller pressure differences with accuracy we can choose a manometer fluid which is having a density closer to the fluid density. 2. Inverted U-tube Manometer Inverted U-tube manometer is used for measuring pressure differences in liquids. The space above the liquid in the manometer is filled with air which can be admitted or expelled through the tap on the top, in order to adjust the level of the liquid in the manometer.

Equating the pressure at the level XX (pressure at the same level in a continuous body of static fluid is equal), For the left hand side: Px = P1 - g(h+a) For the right hand side: Px= P2 - ( ga + mgh) Since Px = Px P1 - g(h+a) = P2 - ( ga + mgh) P1 - P2 = ( m)gh If the manometric fluid is chosen in such a way that rm << r P1 - P2 = gh. For inverted U - tube manometer the manometric fluid is usually air. 3. U-tube with one Leg Enlarged Industrially, the simple U - tube manometer has the disadvantage that the movement of the liquid in both the limbs must be read. By making the diameter of one leg large as compared with the other, it is possible to make the movement