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MIME 2204 ENGINEERING MATERIALS

LAB MANUAL

Engineering Materials

Lab Manual

MIME2204

SALALAH COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY SALALAH

AXIAL TENSION TEST TO OBTAIN STRESS - STRAIN CURVE AND THE STRENGTH

AIM To conduct a tensile test on a mild steel specimen and determine the following: 1. Limit of proportionality 2. Elastic limit 3. Tensile yield strength 4. Ultimate tensile strength 5. Youngs modulus of elasticity 6. Percentage of elongation 7. Percentage of reduction in area EQUIPMENT Universal testing machine, extensometer, meter scale, vernier, caliper and files. THEORY The tensile test is most applied one, of all mechanical tests. In this test ends of test piece and fixed into grips connected to a straining device and to a load measuring device. If the applied load is small enough, the deformation of any solid body is entirely elastic. An entirely deformed solid will return to its original form as soon as load is removed. However, if the load is too large, the material can be deformed permanently. The initial part of the tension curve, which is recoverable immediately after unloading ,is termed as elastic and the rest of the curve, which represents the manner in solid undergoes plastic deformation is termed as plastic. The stress below which the deformation is essentially entirely elastic is known as the yield strength of material. In some materials the onset of plastic deformation is denoted by a sudden drop in load indication both an upper and a lower yield point. However, some materials do not exhibit a sharp yield point. During plastic deformation, at larger Mechanical Section 2 Engineering Department

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extensions strain hardening cannot compensate for the decrease in section and thus the load passes through the maximum and then begins to decrease. At this stage the ultimate strengths, which is defined as the ratio of the load on the specimen to the original cross sectional are, reaches the maximum value. Further loading will eventually cause nick formation and rupture. Usually a tension testis conducted at room temperature and the tensile load is applied slowly. During this test either round of flat specimens may be used. The round specimens may have smooth, shouldered or threaded ends. The load on the specimen is applied mechanically or hydraulically depending on the type of testing machine. PROCEDURE 1. The diameter of the rod is measured using vernier calipers at least at places and the average is taken. 2. The gauge length is calculated and marked on the specimen 3. The specimen is gripped between the top and middle crosshead of the machine tightly and the length of the rod between the grips is measured 4. Extensometer is clamped on the specimen. 5. Initial reading of the extensometer is noted. 6. Adjust the machine for a suitable range. 7. Load is gradually increased at convenient multiples and corresponding extensometer readings are noted. When the elastic limit is reached the extensometer is removed. 8. The yield load, ultimate load and breaking loads are noted down. 9. As soon as the rod fails, release the load. 10. Fit the broken places together and measure the distance between the gauge length 11. Measure the average diameter of the rod at broken end OBSERVATION 1. Material 2. Original dimensions Length = Area 3. = d2 4 Diameter =

Final dimensions Length = Area = d2 4 3 Engineering Department Diameter =

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TABULATION Diameter of specimen Sl.No Unit M.S.R mm V.S.C div V.S.R = V.S.C X L.C mm L.C. = Corrected reading = M.S.R + V.S.R mm

Stress Vs Strain Reading Sl No Unit Load (P) kN Deformation () mm Stress () kN/mm2 Strain (e) No unit Youngs modulus (E) N/mm2

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CALCULATION Load at limit of proportionality (i) Limit of proportionality = Original area of cross section

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Lab Manual Load at elastic limit

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(ii) Elastic limit

= Original area of cross section

Yield load (iii) Yield strength = Original area of cross section

Maximum tensile load (iv) Ultimate strength = Original area of cross section

Stress below the proportionality limit (v) Youngs modulus E = Corresponding strain

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Lab Manual Final length (at fracture) - Original length

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(vi) Percentage of elongation = Original length

Original area - Area at fracture (vii) Percentage reduction in area = Original Area

GRAPH Plot the stress - strain curve with strain on X- axis and strain on Y- axis RESULT (i) Limit of proportionality (ii) Elastic limit (iii)Yield strength (iv)Ultimate strength (v) Youngs modulus
(vi) Percentage of elongation

= = = = = = =

(vii) Percentage reduction in area

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ROCKWELL HARDNESS TEST


AIM To determine the Rockwell hardness number for hard and very hard materials. MATERIAL AND EQUIPMENT Rockwell hardness testing machine, Specimen THEORY This test is used for finding the hardness of hard and very hard materials. For hard materials like mild steel, Brass and Aluminium the indenter used is hard steel ball indenter. The diameter of the ball in ball indenter is 1/16. The load applied for these materials is 100kg and the time of application is 5 to 6 seconds. For very hard materials like hardened steel and tool steel, diamond cone indenter is used. The apex angle in cone indenter is 120. The cone is made of industrial diamond. The load to be applied is 150 kg and the time of application is 6 to 8 seconds. PROCEDURE 1. To be tested with 0.0. Emery paper 2. Place the Specimen on the anvil of Polish the specimen the machine 3. Depending on the material of the specimen, select the indent and the corresponding load 4. Rotate the avail and raise the worktable till the specimen is brought to contact and mark the set position 5. Apply the load for the specified time after the pointer Mechanical Section 8 Engineering Department

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6. Release the load, in the dial comes to rest and the Rockwell hardness number can be directly read from the dial 7. Repeat the procedure to obtain two more sets of readings for each specimen 8. Take the average of three readings which gives the Rockwell hardness number

OBSERVATION (i) Thin steel - load 60 kgf , Diamond indenter (ii) Deep case hardened steel - load 150 kgf , Diamond indenter (iii) Malleable iron - load 150 kgf , 1 / 16 inch ball indenter

TABULATION Rockwell Hardness Number

Sl No Unit

Material

Load applied (Kg)

Type of indent

Scale

Average RHN

RESULT Rockwell Hardness number Mechanical Section 9 Engineering Department

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(i) (ii) (iii)

Steel Brass Aluminium

BRINELL HARDNESS TEST

AIM To find the surface hardness of the given specimen using Brinell hardness tester EQUIPMENT Brinell hardness testing machine, ball indenter, Brinell- Microscope THEORY The thickness of the test specimen shall not be less then a times the depth of the indentation h Depth of indentation h=P / D x H B. Where P is applied in kg D = diameter of ball in mm. Edge distance = 2.3 times diameter of indentation. Distance between the centers of two adjacent indentations = 4-6 times diameter of indentation Test Load = 30 D2 - 15 D2 PROCEDURE 1. Polish the specimen with 0.0 emery paper 2. Place the Specimen on the anvil of the machine 3. Depending on the specimen material and the diameter of the ball indenter, select the proper load; Select a load of 3000kgf and a steel ball indenter of 10mm diameter for hard material like steel .Select a load 1500kgf and a steel ball indenter of 10mm diameter for soft material (Aluminium & brass). Duration of loading is 10 seconds for hard material and 30 seconds for oft materials 4. Insert the ball indenter in the holder Mechanical Section 10 Engineering Department

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5. Rotate the anvil and bring the specimen in contact with the indenter 6. Apply the load for the specified time 7. Release the load and remove the specimen form the anvil 8. Measure the diameter of the impression made by the indenter using Brinell microscope 9. Repeat the same procedure and take two more readings for each specimen

FORMULA BHN = ____________P_______________ D/2 (D- (D2-d2)

Applied load (in kg) ___________________________ Surface area of indentation (inmm2) Surface area of indentation = D/2 (D- (D2-d2) Where D = Diameter of ball used in mm d = diameter of indentation in mm P = load in kg TABULATION Material of the specimen Aluminium 1 2 3 Brass 1 2 3 Steel 1 2 3 Mechanical Section 11 Engineering Department Diameter of the indentation (d) mm Average diameter (d) mm Applied Load (P) kg Mean hardness

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RESULT Brinells Hardness number 1. 2. 3. Steel = Brass = Aluminium =

VICKERS HARDNESS TEST

AIM To determine the Vickerss hardness number for the given specimen EQUIPMENT Vickers hardness testing machine, Diamond paint penetration THEORY The hardness-testing machine has a c shaped body. The lower part carries a hand wheel, which is held in a thrust bearing. A spindle is screwed in the centre hole of the hand wheel. The spindle is adjustable. The turret to which of the thrust piece and the vertical illuminant of the projection as fastened is arranged above the table. The thrust piece holds the penetration and the objective, is held in the vertical illuminant the objective is exchangeable. The eyepiece and the prison of the projection are screwed in the top of the plunger. The hangers are fastened to the lever, with a fork. They consist of a rod with the plate and the weights. PROCEDURE 1. Polish the surface of the specimen. 2. Place the specimen on the supporting table.

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3. Inset the penetration and Vickers diamond pyramid applicable to the test and the derived load stage in the thrust piece. 4. Adjust the required load stage by actuating the corresponding push button. 5. The lamp for the projecting device lights up. 6. Insert the standard hardness test specimen. Turn the hand wheel clockwise until the surface of equipment. 7. Actuate the push button and do not release until the hand lower most upward. Then releases the push button waits the hand lever stops loading time in 30 sec. 8. When the period of force action is over, push the hand lever until the stop device engages. 9. Now the impression can be measure using the measuring device. 10. 11. 12. Turn the measuring equipment so that the diagonal of the Vickers impression As the magnification is 140 fold, the mean diagonal in mm will be, measure The Vickers hardness number can be found out using the table. is parallel with the continues cross line of the scale of the measuring equipment. diagonal in mm divided by 2. the specimen is sharply displayed on the focusing screen of the measuring

RESULT The Vickers hardness of the given specimen is = ------------------

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MECHANICAL PROPERTIES FOR UNHARDENED OR HARDENED SPECIMEN


AIM To find hardness number and impact strength for unhardened, hardened specimen or Quenched and tempered specimen and compare mechanical properties.

MATERIAL AND EQUIPMENT Unhardened specimen, Hardened or Quenched and tempered specimen, muffle furnace, Rockwell testing machine, impact testing machine.

PROCEDURE Case (i) - Unhardened specimen Choose the indenter and load for given material. Hold the indenter in indenter holder rigidly Place the specimen on the anvil and raise the elevating screw by rotating the hand wheel upto the initial load of 10 kgf (i.e. short hand and long hand showed read 3 Apply the major load gradually by pushing the lever and then release it as before. Note down the readings in the dial for corresponding scale. Take min 5 readings for each material. Case (ii) - For unhardened specimen Keep the specimen in muffle furnace at temperature of 700 to 850 for 2 hours The specimen is taken from muffle furnace and quenched in water or oil Then above procedure is followed to test hardness

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Case (iii) - For Tempered specimen Keep the specimen in muffle furnace at temperature of 650 for 2 hours Allow the specimen for air cooling after taking from muffle furnace Then same procedure is followed foe the specimen

OBSERVATION Cases for hardness Cross sectional area = =

SI.No

Material

Selected Temperature (C)

Selected Load (N)

Indenter detail

Scale Trial 1 Trail 2

RHN Trail 3 Mean

Deep case Hardened steel Deep case Hardened steel Mild steel Mild steel

2. 3. 4.

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Engineering Materials CHARPY TEST

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SI.No

Material and Condition

Energy absorbed Jouls

Cross-sectional area below the notch mm2

Impact strength

Unit 1. Mild steel-unhardened

J/ mm2

2.

Quenched

RESULT 1. Hardness in (i) Deep case hardened steel (a) Unhardened (b) Quenched (ii) Mild steel (a) Unhardened (b) Quenched 2. Impact strength in (i) Deep case hardened steel (a) Unhardened (b) Quenched

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Specimen Preparation and Microscopic Examination


Objectives: 1. Familiarization with the procedure for preparation of a material specimen for microscopic examination. 2. Familiarization with compound optical microscopes and metallography. 3. Examination of surface characteristics of engineering materials. 4. Grain size determination of metals. Background: The preparation of a metallurgical specimen generally can be divided into a series of stages: Sectioning, Mounting, Grinding and Polishing, and Etching. Sectioning Sectioning is the removal of a small representative volume of material from the parent piece. The microstructure of the material must not be altered in the process. Cold work and heat are the two most likely conditions that can quickly bring about structure changes. Quite obviously operations such as sawing that generates heat or shearing that introduces cold work are not preferable for sectioning. Cutting using a bonded abrasive wheel with coolant offers the best solution to minimize or eliminate heat and deformation. Mounting Metallurgical specimens are mounted primarily for (1) convenience in handling and (2) protection and preservation during subsequent grinding and polishing. Two methods are frequently used: compression mounting and cold mounting. Compression mounting is done by mounting the specimen in a cylinder of hard polymer under pressure and elevated temperature in a molding machine (Figure 1). The method is often preferred when speed and a relatively hard mounting is required. For metallurgical examination, specimens are usually molded in cylinders 1, 11/4, or 11/2 inches in diameter. Compression molding materials are (1) thermosetting or (2) thermoplastic polymers. Bakelite and diallyl phthalate fall into the first category while transoptic material into the second. By definition, thermosetting materials require heat and pressure during the molding cycle, and therefore may be ejected at high molding temperature. Transoptic materials remain molten at high temperature and become transparent with increasing pressure and decreasing temperature. Molding pressure, temperature, and time duration are the major variables involved in compression mounting. By equipment design, temperature may be held constant leaving pressure and time duration as variables. Cold mounting is done by placing the specimen at the center of a metal or Pyrex ring on a glass plate and pouring liquid mounting material into the ring to cover the specimen. Allow the mounting material to cure at room temperature for 60 to 90 minutes before removing the ring. The method offers particular advantages when a specimen is too Mechanical Section 17 Engineering Department

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delicate to withstand the pressure and heat involved in compression molding. With cold mounting, large groups of specimens may be easily prepared in a short time. Common types of cold mounting material include (1) epoxides (2) polyesters and (3) acrylics. These materials are two-component types consisting of a resin and a hardener. Since the curing process (polymerization) is an exothermic reaction the mixing by volume or weight ratios of each type is critical. Grinding and Polish Grinding and polish are accomplished by sequential coarse grinding, medium grinding, and rough and final polishing. The specimen should be carefully rinsed before proceeding from one operation to the next. Coarse grinding is done on a wet-belt grinder with 120 and 240 grit belts. The purpose of coarse grinding is to obtain a flat surface free from previous cutting tool marks. Medium grinding is accomplished using successively finer grits of metallographic grinding paper. The paper is supported on a hard, flat surface such as glass or steel. The specimen is moved along the length of grinding paper without rotation or a rocking motion. When grinding is completed on one grit the scratches should all run in the same direction. Before proceeding to the next finer grit the specimen should be washed to avoid brining large particles to the finer grit. The specimen is rotated 90 degrees between grits so that scratches from each successively finer grit run at right angles to those from the previous one. The polishing on grit is complete when coarser scratches from previous grit have been totally removed. Rough and final polishing is accomplished on cloth-covered wheels charged with fine abrasive alumina particles suspended in water. Nylon cloth and 1.0-mm alumina particle size are used for the rough polish; a velvet cloth and 0.05-mm particle size for the final polish. A few drops of water are added to the rotating wheel to improve polishing action and cleanliness. Initially the specimen is held at one position on the wheel, without rotation, until most of the previous grinding marks are removed. The specimen can then be rotated slowly, counter to the wheel rotation, until only scratches from the alumina are visible. The final polish should be completed at a slow speed on a different polishing wheel. Etching The specimen surface is fairly smooth immediately after the final polish. A smooth surface deflects lights from the illuminator in the metallurgical microscope along the same direction showing no contrast and cannot reveal surface characteristics. Surface characteristics such as different phases, inclusions, porosity, cracks, intergranular corrosion can be revealed by etching. Etching is defined as the process to reveal structural details by preferential attack of a metal surface with an acid or other chemical solutions. Experimental Procedure: 1. Obtain a steel specimen from the instructor and remove as much surface scale as possible. Mechanical Section 18 Engineering Department

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The steel specimen has been heat treated to form a desired structure for this exercise. 2. Mount the specimen in a phenolic cylinder using a compression mounting press. Watch carefully the demonstration of the use of compression mounting press. Appropriate molding pressure and time should be used in the process.

3. Prepare the specimen by coarse grinding on a wet-belt grinder, hand polishing on four successively finer grits of polishing paper, and fine polishing on two polishing wheels with 1.0-mm and 0.05-mm alumina powders. Rinse the specimen thoroughly between steps. 4. Etch the steel specimen by immersing it in a nital solution (5% concentrated nitric acid in alcohol). Start with 5 seconds of immersion. Rinse the specimen with water, dry with paper towel, immerse briefly in alcohol, and blow dry the specimen with a blow dryer. 5. Examine the specimen under microscope and identify the surface features. The specimen surface may be over etched or under etched. An over etched specimen surface shows patches of dark color with no identifiable features. On the other hand, a shiny, smooth surface with little or no surface features revealed indicates an under etch. Repeat the final polishing to remove the damaged surface and etching for less time if the specimen is over etched. In the case of under etch; repeat the etching step to enhance the contrast. Microscope Focusing Procedure 1. Initially the lowest power objective lens is used for focusing the specimen. Turn the lowest-power objective lens into place. If necessary, turn the coarse stage height control to lower the sample stage to make room so the objective lens can be turned into place. Mechanical Section 19 Engineering Department

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2. Turn the stage height focusing control to position the specimen about half a centimeter under the objective lens. 3. Look through the eyepieces and use the focusing controls (coarse and fine stage height controls) to bring the specimen into appropriate focus. 4. Scan the specimen surface by moving the stage using the stage position controls and select the areas that may warrant more complete study at higher magnification.

5. Turn the higher-power objective into place. 6. Adjust the stage height using the fine control until the specimen comes into sharp focus. Be sure that the objective lens does not touch the specimen surface at any time. Otherwise the objective lens may be scratched and permanently damaged. 7. A drop of oil on specimen surface usually is needed at higher magnification (greater than X2000) to help with focusing.

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