Quantum Electrodynamics

Outline Outline
Classical versus Quantum Theory
Force/interaction mediated by exchange of field quanta

Virtual Particles
Propagator

Feynman Diagrams
Feynman Rules Matrix Elements Cross sections

Electromagnetic vertex
Coupling strength Coupling constant Conservation laws

QED processes
Electron-proton scattering Electron-positron annihilation

Higher order Diagrams

Precision QED tests Running of alpha

Dirac Equation
Appendix
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Quantum Electrodynamics
Quantum Theory (QED)
of Electromagnetic Interactions

Classical Electromagnetism
Forces arise from Potentials V(r) act instantaneously at a distance

QED Picture
Forces described by exchange of virtual field quanta - photons

Propagator

Matrix element
Full derivation in 2nd order perturbation theory Gives propagator term 1/(q2 - m2) g2 M fi = 2 (q m 2 ) for exchange boson Equivalent to scattering in Yukawa potential
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Virtual Particles
Electromagnetic Interaction
Forces between two charged particles are due to exchange of virtual photons Example: electron-electron scattering: e- e- e- e-

q2

Photon mediates electromagnetic interaction No action at a distance required!

Virtual Particles
Do not have mass of physical particle

r2 2 2 m X E X pX

known as Off mass-shell e.g. non-zero for photon r 4-momentum of virtual particle q = ( E q , q ) is energy and momentum transfer between scattered particles Virtual mass-squared q2 = EX2 - pX2 q2 > 0 and q2 < 0 possible Propagator - how far particle is off mass-shell Internal lines, not observable must observe E t
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Feynman Diagrams
A Feynman diagram is a pictorial representation of a process corresponding to a particular transition amplitude Aitchison & Hey Gauge Theories in Particle Physics

Basic Principle

Transition amplitude for all processes - scattering, decay, absorption, emission - is described by Feynman

Diagrams

Conventions

Feynman diagrams a most useful tool in modern particle physics and will be used a lot in this course! Time flows from left to right (sometimes upwards) Fermions are solid lines with arrows Bosons are wavy or dashed lines Allow to calculate quantitative results of transition Derived from quantum field theory (QFT)
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Feynman Rules

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Electromagnetic Vertex
QED Feynman Diagram
Initial state fermion Absorption or emission of photon Final state fermion Examples: e- e- Bremsstrahlung e- + e- Photoelectric effect All electromagnetic interactions are described by vertex and photon propagator

Coupling Strength
Transition amplitude proportional to fermion charge Mfi e Probability/rate of emission or absorption rate |Mfi|2 Rate proportional to coupling constant

Coupling Constant Coupling Constant Coupling Constant

Fine structure constant = 4 hc 137 SI 0 e2

e2

QED Conservation Laws

Momentum and energy conserved at all vertices Charge is conserved in all QED vertices Fermion flavour is conserved e-e- exists, but not c u QED vertex also conserves parity
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Basic QED Processes

Initial and final state particle satisfy relativistic four-momentum conservation m2 = E2 - p2 In free space - Energy conservation violated for above diagrams if all particles are real
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Feynman Rules for QED

Each line and vertex in Feynman diagram
corresponds to a term in the matrix element

Initial and final state fermions

Fermion wave function (spinor when including spin)

Initial and final state bosons

Boson wave function includes polarisation

Internal virtual photons

Photon propagator 1/(q2 - m2) = 1/q2

Internal fermions
Spinor propagator exchanged between charged particles similar in structure to photon propagator

Vertex
Coupling constant ~ e

Example:
electron-muon scattering: e- - e- Transition amplitude
iM fi = u4 ie u2 ig q2 u3 ie u1 muon current photon propagator electron current

and g are 4x4 matrices account for spin-structure of electromagnetic interaction

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Electron-Proton Scattering
Matrix Element
Transition Amplitude use Feynman rules simple if neglecting spins
1 e 2 4 M e 2 e= 2 = 2 q q q

e- p e- p

Cross section
Probability for scattering
d e 4 16 2 2 2 M 4 = d q q4

4-momentum transfer
q 2 = q q = p pi f = p 2 + pi2 2 p f pi f r r 2 = 2me 2 E f E i p f pi cos

= 4 E f E i sin 2 2

r p = E f , p f f r pi = ( E i , pi )

when neglecting me

Rutherford Scattering Rutherford Scattering Rutherford Scattering

Elastic Ef = Ei = E,
d d =
Lab

neglect proton recoil

2
4 E 2 sin 4 2

d = d Lab

E f 2 q2 cos sin 2 2 2 2M p 2 2 4 Ei 4 E sin 2

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e+e- Annihilation
Matrix element
Neglecting spin effects
M e 1 e 4 e= 2 = 2 2 q q q
2

e+e +

q2

Cross section
Work in centre-of-mass frame 4-momentum transfer
r r 2 2 q 2 = q q = ( E1 + E 2 ) ( p1 + p2 ) = ( 2 E ) 2 = s

Use Fermis Golden Rule, density of final state normalisation of wave function
d = 2 M d CoM
2

2 E2 = (2 )3 s
M
2

Correct treatment of spins

t 2 + u2 = 2e s2
4

2 d 1 + cos 2 = d CoM 4 s

(e e
+ +

4 2 87 nb = = s GeV 2 3s

]
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Nuclear and Particle Physics

Higher Order Diagrams

QED
time dependent perturbation theory

Lowest order

M 2
2

1 137 2

Second order

M 4
2

1 137 4

Higher orders
Order n suppressed by = 1/1372n Lowest order dominates if coupling constant is small QED converges rapidly

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QED Precision Tests

Magnetic moment
r r

Couples to spin of electron

= g B S where B =
eh 2m e c

Anomalous magnetic moment

Dirac Equation predicts gyromagnetic ratio g = 2 for point-like particles

a = (g-2)/2 Higher order corrections Bullet represents external electromagnetic field vacuum muon spin-precession vertex polarisation in magnetic field

Vertex ae = a =

QED is most precise theory in physics

Experiment Theory

2 loops 7 Feynman diagrams 3 loops 72 Feynman diagrams 4 loops 891 Feynman diagrams

= 1.1617 10 3 2

ae = (11596521.869 0.041) 10-10 ae = (11596521.3 0.3) 10-10 electrons muons

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Running of
Coupling constant
Strength of electromagnetic interaction = e2/4 is not a constant at all distances

Vacuum
Not empty, around free electron creation and annihilation of virtual electron-positron pairs

Screening
Bare charge and mass of electron only visible at very short distances increases with with larger momentum transfer
e+e +

Classical limit
q2 = 0 = 1/137 = 1/128
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At short distances
q2 = (90 GeV)2
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Dirac Equation
Schroedinger equation
1st order in time derivative 2nd order in space derivatives

Klein-Gordon equation
2nd order in space and time derivatives
2 r 2 2 + = m 2 t 2 r 2 or 2 + m 2 = 0 t

negative energies (E < 0) and negative probability densities (||2 < 0)

Dirac equation Dirac Equation Dirac Equation

1st order in time and space derivatives
r r 0 + i m = 0 or i t

(i

m = 0

are 4x4 matrices Solutions of Dirac equation Wave function with 4-component spinor
r ( x , t ) = N u( p) exp ip x

1 2 = 3 4 E = p2 + m 2

2 positive energy solutions, E > 0 2 negative energy solutions, E < 0 Dirac Equation not examinable
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