LING 455 Second Language Syntax

Lydia White McGill University

Winter 2010
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1.i. Some basic assumptions

1. The unconscious linguistic competence of native speakers is mentally represented by means of a grammar. 2. There is a distinction between competence and performance. There is no direct means to tap linguistic competence. 3. The grammar includes syntax, morphology, phonology, semantics, i.e. formal properties of language. Other aspects of language (discourse, pragmatics, etc.), are external to the grammar but can have important effects on the grammar.
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1.i. Some basic assumptions

Articulatory -perceptual system (sounds)

Lexicon
PF

Phonology

Syntax

LF

Morphology Semantics

Conceptualintentional system (meanings)

1.i. Some basic assumptions

4. Language learners, L1 or L2, must acquire a grammar for the !target" language. They are confronted with linguistic input/data, which must somehow be organized and made sense of: data G output

5. Learners acquire a series of grammars, known as interlanguages in the L2 eld. # data G1 output1 # data data G2 Gn output2 outputn
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1.i. Some basic assumptions

6. Languages/grammars are incredibly subtle and complex. Our unconscious knowledge goes beyond the input in various ways. 7. Language acquisition, at least in L1, is mediated by innate principles, including specically linguistic knowledge (Universal Grammar) (Chomsky): data UG G output

1.ii. L1 and L2 acquisition: differences

1. L1 learner has no prior language. L2 learner has (at least) one other language to draw on (i.e. already has an idea what language is like). 2. L1 learners are young/immature; cognitive development takes place at same time. 3. L1 acquisition is spontaneous and involves no explicit teaching, very little correction. 4. L1 acquisition is not affected by attitude or motivation. 5. L1 is always perfect, target always attained. L2 learners often do not achieve native-like uency or accuracy.
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1.ii. L1 and L2 acquisition: factors

!External" factors relating to input 1. Classroom versus informal settings. Instruction geared towards the L2 versus more naturalistic exposure (possibly similar to L1 acquisition). 2. Teaching methods. Emphasis placed on grammar teaching and correction versus more communicative approaches.

1.ii. L1 and L2 acquisition: factors

!Internal" factors 1. Age. According to some, L2 acquisition by adults is radically different from L1 acquisition or L2 acquisition by children. 2. The mother tongue. The L1 grammar plays a major role in how the interlanguage grammar is shaped. 3. Psychological and sociological variables, including attitude and motivation, intelligence and language aptitude, acculturation, etc. may play a role in L2 - we will not be dealing with this.
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1.ii. L1 and L2 acquisition: similarities

1. Similar acquisition task - acquisition of an unconscious linguistics system to account for the input, allow comprehension and production, etc. 2. Error types. 3. Acquisition orders. 4. Access to UG?

1.ii. L1 and L2 acquisition: questions

What do L2 learners acquire? How do they acquire it? 1. Is child L2 acquisition like child L1 acquisition? 2. Is adult L2 acquisition like child L1 acquisition? 3. Is child L2 acquisition like adult L2 acquisition?

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1.iii. Logical problem of acquisition

On the basis of linguistic input, learners (L1 or L2) must come up with a grammar for the language being acquired. However, the input does not give learners enough information to work out all the properties of language that they eventually come to know. Our knowledge is more complex, abstract and subtle than would be expected if language was acquired from input alone.

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1.iii. Logical problem of acquisition

Three problems with the input: 1. Underdetermination 2. Absence of negative evidence (at least in L1 acquisition) 3. Degeneracy

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1.iii. Logical problem of acquisition

Knowledge of ungrammaticality: Wh-movement a. What did Mary buy <what>? b. What does John think [that Mary bought <what>]? c. *What does John wonder [whether Mary bought<what>]? d. *What does John wonder [who bought <what>]?

Solution: Built-in principles of UG (Subjacency, island constraints)

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1.iii. Logical problem of acquisition

Input

UG (principles and parameters)

G1

G2

Gn

steady state grammar of L1

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1.iii. Logical problem of acquisition

L2 Input

UG (principles and parameters)

L1 G G1

ILG1 G2

ILGn Gn

steady state steady state L2/ILG grammar of L1

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1.iii. Logical problem of acquisition

L2 Input

UG (principles and parameters)

L2 input

L1 G G1

ILG1 G2

ILGn Gn

steady state steady state L2/ILG grammar of L1

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1.iii. Logical problem of acquisition

L2 Input

UG (principles and parameters)

L1 G G1

ILG1 G2

ILGn Gn

steady state steady state L2/ILG grammar of L1

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1.iv. Theories of L2 acquisition

There are two main opposing L1 acquisition theories about the nature of the early grammar.

These theories focus on functional categories (Det, In, Comp) and their morphological realizations (tense and agreement morphology, function words like determiners and auxiliaries, etc). These theories have their equivalents in L2 acquisition.

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1.iv. Theories of L2 acquisition

1. The small clause hypothesis/weak continuity hypothesis for L1 acquisition (Radford, Clahsen, etc.):

Functional structure is assumed to be initially absent. The learner gradually builds up structure on the basis of exposure to input or on the basis of maturation or a combination.

L2 equivalents: Minimal Trees Hypothesis (Vainikka &Young-Scholten); modulated structurebuilding (Hawkins).

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1.iv. Theories of L2 acquisition

2. The full competence hypothesis for L1 acquisition (Wexler, Hyams, Rizzi, etc) Functional structure is present from the beginning (!given" by UG), i.e. the abstract skeleton is there even though it isn"t completely lled in with lexical material. L2 equivalents: full transfer and/or full access. Complete functional structure comes from the L1 (White, Schwartz,etc) or from UG (Flynn).

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1.iv. Theories of L2 acquisition

Relevant data: missing inection. (1) Hayley draw boat (Radford 1990) (2) Yesterday they open until ve (Lardiere 1998) Interpretations of absence/variability of inectional morphology a. !Primitive" grammars - acquisition of morphology drives acquisition of syntax (morphology before syntax). b. Complex and abstract grammar - functional structure present from the beginning (syntax before morphology).
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1.iv. Theories of L2 acquisition

Representation for !Mummy (will) eat (the) cookie"

Minimal trees
VP 4 Spec V' 3 Mummy V NP | eat N cookie
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1.iv. Theories of L2 acquisition

Representation for !Mummy (will) eat (the) cookie"

CP 4 C' 3 IP C 3 I' NP @ 4 I VP Mummy 4 (will) V' 3 V NP eat 3 N' det

Mummy

VP 4 Spec V' 3 V eat

NP |

Full competence CP 4 C' 3 IP C 3 I' NP @ 4 I VP Mummy 4 (will) V' 3 V NP eat 3 N' det | (the) N cookie
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1.iv. Theories of L2 acquisition

Representations for !Mummy (will) eat (the) cookie"
Minimal trees
CP Full competence 4 C' 3 VP IP C 3 4 I' NP Spec V' @ 4 3 I VP Mummy Mummy 4 (will) V NP V' 3 | eat V NP N eat 3 cookie N' det | (the) N cookie

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1.iv. Theories of L2 acquisition

1. L2 initial state. What does the learner start out with? What is the earliest grammar like? 2. L2 stages of development. What are the different stages like? What factors lead to grammar change? 3. L2 nal state. What is the nature of the ultimate attainment of L2 learners? Can they ever be native-like?

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1.v. Methodologies
Production - spontaneous vs. elicited - oral vs. written Comprehension - Act out - Picture selection

Competence

Intuitions - grammaticality judgments - truth value judgments

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1.v. Methodologies: Production

Spoken or written production. a. Spontaneous. Learner must be recorded, data transcribed and analysed. Advantages: (i) naturalistic; (ii) provides data on many different aspects of language development. Disadvantages: (i) Learners may not produce the words or structures that you are interested in; (ii) may lead to an underestimation of the learner"s knowledge; (iii) data transcription and analysis can be very time-consuming.
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1.v. Methodologies: Production

Ch. 1, Ex. 4. L1 French, L2 English

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1.v. Methodologies: Production

b. Elicited. Here, the experimenter devises ways of controlling what the learner says (or writes), to elicit specic structures. Advantages: (i) control over structures being investigated; (ii) experiments can be conducted in a short space of time. Disadvantages: (i) elicited production tasks can be hard to construct; (ii) they may resemble classroom exercises.

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1.v. Methodologies: Production

Bilingual Syntax Measure (Dulay & Burt)

Whats the girl doing? Whose ower is this?

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1.v. Methodologies: Comprehension

a. Act-out. The experimenter says a sentence and the subject has to act this out with toys. b. Picture selection. The experimenter says a sentence; the learner has to point to whichever picture he or she thinks best corresponds to the meaning of the sentence. Advantages: (i) control over structures being investigated; (ii) experiments can be conducted in a short space of time; (iii) relatively easy to administer; (iv) the subject does not have to speak; (v) you can test for structures that the subject is not producing. Disadvantages: (i) certain constructions cannot be tested in this way (e.g. questions); (ii) response biases; (iii) you can"t test ungrammatical sentences.
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1.v. Methodologies: Comprehension

Picture selection example

Mary was sprayed by Bill

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1.v. Methodologies: Intuitions

a. Grammaticality judgments (GJ). Subjects are asked to judge sentences as being correct or incorrect. Advantages: (i) control over structures being investigated; (ii) experiments can be conducted in a short space of time; (iii) relatively easy to administer; (iv) the subject does not have to speak; (v) you can test for structures that the subject is not producing; (vi) you can test for knowledge of ungrammaticality. Disadvantages: (i) response biases; (ii) what to do if subjects are not sure of their judgments; (iii) problems with unanticipated interpretations; (iv) metalinguistic.

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1.v. Methodologies: Intuitions

Ch. 1, Ex. 6

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1.v. Methodologies: Intuitions

b. Truth value judgments (TVJ). Learners have to decide whether a sentence !ts" some previous context (story, scenario or picture), i.e. whether the sentence is true or false. Advantages: (i) control over structures being investigated; (ii) experiments can be conducted in a short space of time; (iii) relatively easy to administer; (iv) subject does not have to speak; (v) you can test for structures that the subject is not producing; (vi) can be used to investigate knowledge of ambiguity; (vii) directs subject's attention away from the form of the sentence. Disadvantages: (i) response biases; (ii) test scenarios are time-consuming to construct.

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1.v. Methodologies: Intuitions

Truth value judgment example

Tom is pushed by Mary

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1.v. Methodologies: Intuitions

Truth value judgment example

Tom is pushing Mary

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1.v. Methodologies: Intuitions

Truth value judgment example Susan wanted a job in a hospital. A nurse interviewed her. The nurse asked Susan about her experience, her education and whether she go on well with people.
The nurse asked Susan about herself.

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