Economies & Diseconomies of Scale

Production and Cost in the Long Run

The key difference between the short run and the long run is that there are no diminishing returns in the long run.

Diminishing returns occur because workers share a fixed facility. In the long run the firm can expand its production facility as its workforce grows.

What is scale?
By scale of an enterprise or size of a plant we mean the amount of investment in fixed factors of production Costs of production are lower in larger plants than in smaller ones This is due to economies of large-scale production The term economies refers to cost advantages When these economies are over-exploited the result may be cost disadvantages, i.e. diseconomies

Economies of Scale
Economies of scale: a situation in which an increase in the quantity produced decreases the long-run average cost of production. Economies of scale refer to cost savings associated with spreading the cost of indivisible inputs and input specialization. When economies of scale are present, the LAC curve will be negatively sloped.

Long-run Average Cost

Long-run average cost (LAC) is total cost divided by the quantity of output when the firm can choose a production facility of any size. The LAC curve describes the behavior of average cost as the plant size expands. Initially, the curve is negatively sloped, then beyond some point, it becomes horizontal.

Long-run Average Cost

When long-run total cost is proportionate to the quantity produced, long-run average cost does not change as output increases.
Average cost: $ per rake
Long-run Average Cost Curve

Output: Rakes per Minute

Long-run Total Cost

Long-run Average Cost

12

7 14 21 28 Output: Rakes per minute

3.5 7 14 28

$70 $84 $168 $336

LAC $20.00 $12.00 $12.00 $12.00

The long-run average cost curve is horizontal for 7 or more rakes per hour.

Labor Specialization
In a large operation, each worker specializes in fewer tasks thus is more productive than his or her counterpart in a small operation. Higher productivity (more output per worker) means lower labor costs per unit of output, thus lower production costs (ever-decreasing average cost).

Minimum Efficient Scale

The minimum efficient scale describes the output at which economies of scale are exhausted and the long-run average cost curve becomes horizontal. Once the minimum efficient scale has been reached, an increase in output no longer decreases the long-run average cost.

Diseconomies of Scale
A firm experiences diseconomies of scale when an increase in output leads to an increase in long-run average costthe LAC curve becomes positively sloped. Diseconomies of scale may arise for two reasons:
Coordination problems Increasing input costs

Diseconomies of Scale
After firm has reached its efficient scale, further in creases in number of workers will lead to inefficiency Co-ordination of different processes becomes difficult and decision-making process becomes slow Supervision of workers becomes difficult, management problems get out of hand with adverse effects on managerial efficiency

Types of Economies of Scale

External Economies - Economies available to all firms in the industry. - For eg. Construction of roads, railways in an area reduces costs for all firms in that area - Discovery of a new technique, rise of industries using by-products, availability of skilled labour through the establishment of special technical schools - External economies usually occur when an industry is heavily concentrated in a particular area

Internal Economies of Scale

Internal economies are available to a particular firm and give it an advantage over other firms engaged in the industry Arise from the expansion of the size of a particular firm From a managerial point of view internal economies are most important as they can be effected by managerial decisions of an individual firm to change its size/scale Internal economies arise due to a firms own expansion while external economies arise due to expansion of some other industry or due to some external factor

Types of Internal Economies

Labour Economies -Reduction in labour costs per unit due to increasing division/specialisation of labour -Arise due to increase in the skill of workers and saving of time involved in changing from one operation to another -Many operations may be performed mechanically rather than manually -Economies are maximum where products are complex and the manufacturing processes can be sub-divided

Types of Internal Economies

Technical Economies -Derived from the use of scientific processes and machines that a large production firm can afford Managerial Economies -With the increase in the size of a firm, the efficiency of management increases because of greater specialisation in managerial staff -Experts in a large firm can be hired to look after various divisions like purchasing, sales, production, financing, personnel

Types of Internal Economies

Marketing Economies -A large firm can obtain economies in purchasing and sales as it has bulk requirements and can hence get better terms -It gets the advantage of prompt deliveries, careful attention and special facilities from its suppliers -A large firm can also spread its advertising cost over bigger output

Types of Internal Economies

Economies of Vertical Integration -Larger firm can integrate a number of stages of production -Production is better planned and this leads to cost control Eg. Oil refining companies controlling distribution, i.e. owning petrol pumps-forward integration, or controlling oil reserves through oil explorationbackward integration Financial Economies -Larger firms get credit more easily and also on better terms -Better image, easier access to capital/stock markets

Types of Internal Economies

Economies of Risk-spreading -Larger size of business, greater scope for spreading of risks through diversification -Diversification can be either of products or of markets