Академический Документы
Профессиональный Документы
Культура Документы
S.N. Bland, S.C. Bott, A. Guite, G.N. Hall, S. M. Hardy, S.V. Lebedev, P. Shardlow, A. Harvey-Thompson, F. Suzuki Blackett Laboratory, Imperial College London D.J. Ampleford Sandia National Laboratories, Albuquerque K. H. Kwek Physics Dept, University of Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
This research was sponsored by Sandia National Laboratories, Albuquerque, and NNSA under DOE Cooperative Agreement DE-F03-02NA00057
Wires heat, ablate into plasma JxB force towards axis On stagnation, X-ray pulse 280TW, 2MJ soft X-rays @ 20% efficiency Large questions over physics behind implosions
240x7.5um W on 120x7.5um W on Z
% of implosion time
Sanford et al,
Precursor can be redirected into jet Jet scalable to astrophysical jets Can be interacted with gases/foils
Wire core remains stationary J^B force acts just to accelerate coronal plasma around core Streams then flow force free to axis
Radiography (3-5kV)
16mm
dm 0 2 v =IB= I dt 4 r
Until ~80% of 0-D time ablation continues Gaps form in cores and implosion occurs as snowplough accreting prefilled mass
% of implosion time
Peak X-rays debris imploded
XUV images of an array implosion showing trailing mass implodes after peak X-rays
-15ns
peak
+15ns
1-1.4MA, 240ns rise time High impedance generator Good diagnostic access return at 7.5cm
Traditional measurements of I
Pick up or B-dot coil:
B I B Faradays law:
V pickup =
d dt
dt
d B.d S
Vpickup
V pickup
o dI = nA 2r dt
Rogowski groove:
A machined groove effectively acts as a single turn coil I Vgroove B B
Vgroove = z
d
a
0I dr 2r b dI = z 0 ln . dt 2 a dt
Can be made and positioned accurately More easily shielded from electric field effects
Shielding by plasma
In high conductivity plasmas magnetic flux can be trapped in the flow, shielding the probe
Breakdown to probe
Before coil After
High fields can lead to breakdown through probes themselves destroys probe, damages scope and disturbs pinch
Faraday Probing
EM waves passing through optically active materials in a magnetic field have a difference in wave velocities for the right hand and the left hand nodes of a circularly polarized wave wave rotates as propagating -Faraday Rotation Can be monitored be examining intensities of different polarisations In a plasma, the rotation , is a function of plasma density:
1 e3 1 = m 2 2 n e B dl 2c 0 e
= B dl
Alternately, a rod of active solid material, such as quartz or Verdet glass can be used where is the Verdet constant
Use short pulse laser to provide polarised images of array and examine transmitted intensities can provide information on where current is flowing in plasma if density is known
Alternatively can use CW laser, and examine polarised transmission across a chord in time. To remove uncertainties in plasma density, laser passes through Verdet material e.g. quartz
8-bit CCD
Because the degree of rotation is small, a polariser is required before array Analyser in parallel light (at focus of telescope) via non-polarising beamsplitter Faraday, interferometry and shadowgraphy all share same (low) acceptance angle
Mach-Zehnder line
I bright = I 0 cos2 ( A )
I dark = I 0 cos2 ( A + )
Providing we know background intensity (Io), or how it is changing shot to shot, monitoring bright and dark allows to be calculated Then knowing electron density profile we can find B
During shot intensity on one side of the precursor higher than other Idark and Ibright swap sides when A swaps direction indicates current present in precursor
100
rotation (deg)
0.30
22
current (kA)
700 800 900 1000
0.25
23
80
6 0 40
21
20
700 800 900 1000 1100
20
radius (um)
600
5.0 4.5
radius (m)
Assuming cylindrical symmetry of precursor, its density can be determined from interferometry Rotation and density suggest a current of ~100kA through precursor (11% total I)
700 800 900 1000
radius (m)
The level of current in the precursor can also be estimated from its stability: Where is a constant that depends on B I c growth rate = A = = mode of MHD instability r0 r0 2r02 In arrays of 8+ wires, the lack of instabilities observed suggest I < 7% total current (likely much less)
dne dx dl
2 ne2 Z ln
ne Te 1 n c
3 2
1 2
Te in eV
Plasma that has expanded close to the wire cores refracts/absorbs light. This can , for instance, obstruct interferometry of the precursor - eg, for 16 wires on 16mm diameter array, side-on interferometry of precursor is difficult/impossible
The laser is already well polarised, and angle of rotation is so large (>/8) only an analyser is required Rod must be protected from both EM radiation (it could scintillate), shock and debris Thor Labs DET210 detector at 532nm with 50 load: Faraday rod in V = 14xinput power in W protection tube next Time response ~1ns to short circuit load
CW Diode pumped Nd-YAG laser supplied by Wicked Lasers 35mW CLASS 3B, 532nm TEM00, Beam diameter ~2mm, Divergence <1.2mRad Usually powered by 2xAAA batteries! Mains powered, with copper heat sink
0.04
0.03
0.02
0.01
0.00
10
Time (us)
Current (kA)
(r
+x
3 2 2
2 1 0 -1 -2 -3
Integrating, and substituting into the rotation equation with r =7mm and length 13mm:
-0.2
-0.3 5000
Time (ns)
0r 2 B(x ) = I(t) 2
3 0.3
1.0 0.9
I diode1 = I 0cos2 ( A )
cos (rotation)
I diode2 = I 0cos2 (A + )
Unfortunately uncertainty in the initial polarisation A makes analysis difficult future experiments require A to be known and set before experiment ie Rotate polarisation to 0 on diode 1, max on diode 2
Diode s polar Diode p polar
0.2 3000
Time (ns)
Diode voltage (V)
Opposite signals from the 2 diodes suggest Faraday rotation is taking place Intensity peaks with peak current as expected
0.15
0.10
0.05
Time (ns)
Top down view M10 bolt (short circuit) Faraday rod inside protection tube bolted into position
Again Biot Savart can be used to calculate the field expected at the rod. Integration and substituting for rotation:
= B(t) dl =
Current (kA)
I(t) = I 0sin 2 (
t ) 2
50
Diode 1 Diode 2
100
150
200
250
The intensity measured on the diodes expected to show at least 5 minima over the current pulse
Time (ns)
0.10
0.08 0.06 0.04 0.02 0.00 -0.02 0 50 100 150 200 250 300
In experiment any real signal is swamped by noise both electrical and optical
Time (ns)
Summary
Imaging Faraday system Measures rotation in polarised laser image Successfully used to examine current in precursor Small rotations make accuracy difficult Suffers from absorption/ refraction problems
In experiment swamped by electrical/optical noise Questions remain as to disturbance of saturation or rod and disturbance of plasma in experiment
Future Improvements
Imaging faraday will be improved via: a) Better input beam Improvements in the laser system will remove many of the spatial features present in intensity b) improved polarizers Glan-Taylor Prisms provide 105 extinction Time resolved faraday requires electrical and optical noise present at the diode to be reduced, or the introduction of a far more powerful laser: a) The optical shielding will be increased with better interference filters. b) The 30mW CW laser currently used will not improve the basic signal level. One option would be a more powerful CW laser. BUT DET210 detectors have a maximum input of 100mW CW not much improvement
450
400 350 300 250 200 150 100 50 0 0 50 100 150 200
Plate Polarizer
Faraday rotator
97% beamsplitter
Time (ns)