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TITLE PARTICLE ENERGIZATION

AuTHOR(S)

Galen Gisler

10 SUBMITTED

Proceedings of the Workshop on the Interpretation of Modern Synthesis Observations of Spiral Galaxies, Albuquerq(le, NM March 11-15, 1990 ~ECLAIMER
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Los Alamos National Laboratory Los Alamos,New Mexico 87545

PARHCLE ENERGIZATION

GAI J5N GISLER Space Plasma Physics,Los Alarnos National Laboratory Los Alamos NM 87545

ABSTRACT.

A first-principles approach to the physics of particle energization is presented. The general physicsof particle accelerationis then applied to a number of the classical astrophysical mechanismsfor accelerating particles, with referencesto recent litcratum+ where these am used in specific circumstances. The solar flare is recommended as a microcosm for studying pardclc accclermion becausemany diffemtt Dmcesscs seem to be occurring in close proximity, and them is abundant hi~ time resolution data for diagrmsing those proccsscs. Finally, a list of possible sitesand mechanisms for particle acceleration in spiral galaxies is presented.

1. INTRODUCTION This review of particle encrgizadon is intended as a survey of what people are
mrrcntly doing and thinking in this subdiscipliw My own interestis in how particles can lx extracted from a backgtmnd thermal popuhdon to form a supathermal population. Others, who arc interested in how suprathennal particles arc accelcmtcd to relativistic energies, call my problem the injection, orseed, problem, Both of these pmblcms must lx! addressedin order to understand fhe origin of energetic particles in cosmic sources. There is a great deal of work presently M.ng done In this atea, but it is spread among astrophysics,spacephysics, sohr physics, and cosmic ray physics. To prepare this talk, 1sumeyed the literature for the years 1987 tirough 1989, and fount 203 paperson the subject, distributed as shown in Table 1. TABLE I Distribution of literature on pmticlc cncrgization, 1987-89,

Astrophys. J. J. Geo hvs. Rcs. sol. P Rys, Astron, Astrophys. Phys. Fluiak Mon. Not. Roy. Astr. S(JC. Astrophys. Space Sci. Space ,fci. Rev. Sov. Astr.

70
33 13 8
7 ; 5 5
S y-) ?1

various confcnmt:
~;rf. Inl *... .. .,.uft, I}lvv

,YW:&i!iqg II(V

. (m,)

With so many people working in this area, publishing so many papcrx in so many different journals, there must be lots of ideas for the si~cs M which particle acceleration occurs, Indeed this is true, as show-n in Table II. This table was constructed from the Astronomy and Astrophysics Abstracts. Tk phrase p~rtick acceleration is asecondary keyword in that reference, but not aprimary keyword, which means you have to look under a large number of primary keywords to do an exhaustive search. The primary keywords usually (but not always) turn out to be generic sites. This is merely an illustmivc list, showing that the general phenomenon encompasses an extremely broad range of physical parameters. TABLE 11 IYimary kcywords in Astronomy and Astrophysics Abstracts, under which panicle accclcration is found m a secondary keyword. accretion active galactic nuclei aurorac black holes close binaries cometary atmospheres cometary comae comets cosmic rays Crab nebula Earth magnetosphere Earth ionosphere geomagnetic tail interplanetary plasma interplanetary shock waves jets magnetic flux tubes molecular clouds neutron stare planetary magnetospheres plasma pulsar magnetospheres pulsars quasars radio galaxies shock waves solar atmosphere solar corona solar cosmic rays solar flares solar magnetic fields solar particles solar radio bursts solar wind spiral galaxies supenlova remnants supernovae

In addition it variety of physical proccsscs arc considered important for particle cncrgization, and while at some sites there maybe just onc that is dominant, in general many processes operiitc together. In this review I introduce the subject with some gcnmd remarks on potentials for cross-fertilization in this branch of physics (Section 2), then touch briefly on the subject of power laws (Section 3), bci t addnxsing the general physics of proccsscs by which charged palticlcs can gain energy (Section /1), IIISection 5, 1 give Cxarnpics, with signpats to the rcccnt Iitcratum for details, In Section 6, I suggest that solar flares make a gwd Iabomtory for the study of pitrticlc cncrgiza!.ion, since so many different proccsscs appear to be occurring in onc plGcc, and in Scc[iorl 7 I give a list of possible sites and mcch,anisms for the production of the particles responsible for the continuum radio emission from spiriil galaxies, Finally, in Section 8 I offer suggestions as to profitable techniques for further study, 2. PARTICLE
ENER(;IZAI10N (; ENERAL REMARKS

nating, as there arqxxir to be u multitude of ways in which high-energy charged particics can arise in collisionless plasmas. The reason for this is that a collisionlcss plasma is a highly dynamic system, made up of electrons, ions, and clcctromagnctic liclds. An outside source of energy may couple most effectively with one of those components, crczting a nonequilibnum situation. In reapportioning the energy, the plasma makes use of a large numtw of instabilities, and often the saturation mode of one instability cm supply a source of fme energy to drive another instability. The plasma then cascades via these instabilities from higher energy states to lower energy states. With each cascade, some energy escapes the system in the form of electromagnetic radiation, and some escapes as high energy particles. Since the high energy particles are quickly lost, they constitute a very efficient way for the plasma to dump energy. While we do not yet understand in detail the processes by which energetic particles an produced in collisionless plasmas, we have numcmus examples of very-well diagnosed systems in which this occurs. In fusion laboratories, confinement breakdown is often associated with bumts of energetic particles, at energies much higher than the thermal energy. Runaway electrons in tokarnaks are a particular example. Sce the review by Benz (1987) for an account of how runaway electrons arc produced, with rcfcrcnccs to both tokamaks and solar flares, In space, everywhere we look (comets, planetary magnetospheres, interplanetary bow shocks, solar flares, etc.) we see energetic pafiiclcs, and we have data (microwaves, X-rays, in situ piuticle detectors, all with high time resolution) that can tell us something about tic processes that accelerate them. In astronomy, there is evidence for energetic particles in many different sources, in many different parts of the electromagnetic specuum. In addition, cosmic ray detectors see energetic particles fmm distant sources directly, Thus particle acceleration is an area that is ideal for cross-fertilization between the various disciplines that usc plasma physics. Astronomers in particular can benefit by using data from these other fields, even though the net result may tend to blur the usefulness of synchrotrons radiation as a diagnostic tool. Because of the division of research into particle acceleration along disciplinary lines, this area is made to seem esoteric, Each subdiscipline uses its own particular terminology and specialized techniques. It is therefore useful to reacquaint ounsclves with the fundamental physics of particle acceleration and to adopt a cross-disciplinary, first-principles approach. 3. POWER LAWS First it is in order to make some general remarks about power laws. since the output of a particle acceleration calculation is often the index of a power law, which is then compared with art obscwcd radio frequency spectrum, Fitstly, inferring a particle tmcrgy spectrum from an observed frequency spectrum involves makmg some assumptions that may bc incomct. The often stated assumption, that [he magnetic field in the source is uniform and isotropic, is, of course, a physical impossibility, Thc onl y possible uniform magnetic field is highly directional, Fields that vary in dimctioi~enough to be described as isotropic will also rcsscd on this point, a radio astronomer wiil vary significantly in magnitude, WhCrI clarify: the field may vary in strength, [ ut all the radiating particles arc in fickls of dwut the same magnimdc, riindomiy oriented to the line of sight. This makes some physic::! W?SC,iv thnt ch,w~cd particles tend m avoid places wh~rcth(; firld h high, hIIIII ignores [hc t[~cl th:~tpl;~smas in highly dis[urbcd mgior]s 01 qp:ILC (Iikc typi(:~1 ~ii(jto sour~u) i]!(it)(*vit \!)!\vcrv l;Ir lmm (v!ltilihriurn i;wtic1~~ ,1p.]rll(lll:lr L (~1 t!~di iud Gicnisclvcs in high lwlds will mdiatc very cllccuv~i), while simli~i
~lltil#J

particles in lower fields will not. I appeal to astronomers to consider other possibilities. The field in the source is cerrainfy inhomogcncous in strength, Perhaps it has a power-law distribution of magnetic field strengths. In that case, depending upon me accessibility of energe5c particles to the high-field regions, the output radio-frequency spectrum could be a power law cvc ] if the energetic particle distribution is a delta function (Terry Whelan, private communication, 1985). Secondly, a power law has very little in the way of physical content. The usual power law expn.xsion for a particle energy spectrum is

Nac E-y.
This can also be written in the form dhL .N Y~,

o) (2)

which simply relates the frictional loss in a population to the fractional gain in energy by the remaining members of that population. An acceleration mechanism that satistics equation (2) is, for example, one in which the fractional gain in energy at each step is proportional to the energy the particle already has, while the probability of escape at each step is independent of energy. It is relatively simple to concoct linear schemes that work, by making simplifying assumptions about conditions that we know little about. That is one way to make progress, and diffusive shock acceleration theory (see below, Section 5,d) is an example of such a scheme, in which the power-law index y is simply related to the shock compression ratio. A better way to study particle acceleration is to stat from first principles, and then see what distributions we end up with. 4. THE PHYSICS OF PARTICLE ENERGIZATION a. The Lorentz force NaturaUy any discussion of particle energiz,ation must begin with the 1,orentz force on a particle of charge q and velocity w:
F=q(E+~x B).

(3)

Some elementary observations follow imme&ately, in the case of static, uniform fields. Since the force of the magnetic field acts pctpcndicular to the particles velocity, it cannot by itself inc~ase tic particles energy. Clearly, a component of E parallel to B yields a steady increase in the particles energy. If E is strictly perpendicular to B and IEI < IBI,it is possible to transform to a frame in which E is zero. The velocity of the transformation is the E x B drift speed, given IMOWin equation ( 11), Seen in the lab frame, the pvticles energy increases during half of its cyclotron period, and dccrea.scs during meother half. Them is no net energy gain, but the particle drifts in a direction pc~ndicular to both E and B. If IEI> IBI, the drift speed is greater thanc. In that case a different transformation can be made to a frame in which B is zero and the particle is acted upon by a purely electrostatic field am!,can thcrcforc gain energy, If the magnetic ticld is nonuniform, or there are other forces operating, particles can gain energy in even weak transvcmc electric fields. A gradient in B, for cxamnlc, will break the symmetry bctwccn the two halves of a cyclotron rotation, and tf~crciixc permit p~tti~iu accclnration in a transverse field. TIc p;miclc drifts ithmg :!-,~,i~l.uicrittin~ !icld (we Section 4,d). !{(:N.,,lf \V1*;~ilr~h!~lrw:I)I~10 ~{:~~l~r:lll: i ! p{~fli(;]csn ;islr~)ph~~l~ti~ nJKls, i O \tc lrlc:; : !.$ok [qr W;(YS 1:, i>r~}lio~~ [)iif;~ll~>l (.li~[ri~ fit:!~s i;; ~rc~ :,+110$ ~;i VCly ,~lii)r,g u iit)!wcmcIickh, UI~lrcumstanccs that allow acceleration in weak trimsvcr~ fields,

It is of course well known that large-scale. static electric fields cannot be maintained in space, becauseof tic existence of highly mobile free chtugcs,.s0we look for ways of producing dynumic electric fields. Such fields can be said to come in five categories: indkctive, electrostatic, magnetohydrodynamic, electrodynurnic, and resistive. To see how they arise wc examine Maxwells equations and Ohms law.

b. Maxwells equations
Maxwells ccmationsfor the elect.mmagneticfield arc conventionally wnuen:

=c at

aB

VXE

(4) (5)

V@ E=4Zp

(6)

VOB=()

(n

wherep and J arc the local charge and current densities. An inducrive Clcctric field arises from a Limcdcpcndent magnetic field via Faradayslaw, equation (4). This is what acceleratesparticles in laixxatory devices like betatrons. 11also works in space, for particles diffusing into regions of stronger field, or particles in a fluid being compmsed. The inductive electric field is an impottant component of Fermf acceleration, which is the best known of the traditional astrophysicalmechanismsfor particle aceelcradon (see Section 5a). h efectmstatic electric field arisesfrom charge sepamtion through Coulombs law, equation (6). Lnspace,such fields m of small spatial scale or of short duration, but they do form, and can accelerate particles. The usual signature of electrostatic acceleration is a very narrow spmmd the energy of the accelerated in particles. Electrostatic fields can form where there is a shmp gradient in density, and an increasein temperaturein the densermedium, The more mobile charge species runsahead into the lowdensity medhtm, and actsup an electric field. This occursin so/.arj7ares (Lin and Schwartz, 1987; Mamns, 1988; Smith and Orwig, 1988; Winglee, 1989), at sheds (Chiueh, 1988; Ohsawa and Sakal, 1987; Ohsawa and Sakai, 1988; Schwanz et al., 1988: Schwarw.et a!., 1987), in &uble layers (Borovsky, 1988), and in general in any expanding pfasma (Gislcr, 1989).

c. ohms law
To look at the other varieties of dynamic electric fields, wc also need Ohms law for a moving medium with conductivity u and fluid velocity v: J=~E+:xB). (8) In a fluid with infinite conductivity this gives an clcctnc field

F=-

+xBo

(9)

~s is equivalent to a Loremz transformation of a laboratory-frame II into E in tie frame of a moving fluid. UnLcr uniform conditions, this electric field can be transformed itway. However, if either B or v is nonuniform, as at a shock, there is no tmique transformation 10get rid of E. This magnetohydrodynurnfc flcld does no work on the

Plukl.though it does wok on dccoupicd pardclc~, Since it is a munsww rlnctfic Md. il &L~iCiMG pv?icics only wncn curnbincd with ptiniclc drifts (see 4,(1~ Ifthr c(mducung tllclliun~ IS n)[~ling, IIFC;In ~~~t~[i[)n(ii*h, J plimcls i .f L !wih)SpllCLC 01 u .kbil (Ai .-M! :I[t.lira UICIT IS v IIIII(JU( !lWMjlUl iiiiiLiSR i:; &Ci IL L. -. In this ca.sc, the field from equation (9) may he termed cfcctrodynurnic. in andogY

with clccmical gcnermmrs.Elcctrodynamic fields can produce very Iargc potential drops @ctwccn equator and pole, or between the outer and inner edge of a disk), giving rise to vacuum fields with E parallel to Bin some regions. Such fields are
dischargedby the production of intense beamsof charged particles, but the conditions arc such that they are quickly regenerated,since t-heenergy reservoirsarc vast. Parti:lcsin such fields can gain large amounts of energy very uickly (Gisleret af., 1 198!; Lcinemann and l%iclheim, 1988: Mclia and Fatuzzo, 19 9; Sorrdl, 1987). With finite conductivity, Ohms law (equation 8) gives resistive ekcuic llelds with finite components parallel to B. Combining Ohms law with Amp&es law (equation 5) and neglecting the displacement current ~E@t gives

E =-:x

B+-&vx

B.

(lo)

TIE parallel component of E is then the right hand side projected onto B, to which
only the second term contributes. A rapid increasein msistivity due to a micminstability in a solar coronal lcMp can rapid]y produce a strong paral.lclelectric field (Takakura, 1987). This M a manifestation of magnetic rceomection, where magnetic energy is converted intc the kinetic energy of field-aligned fast particle beams. Magnetic reconnectionis extensive y sludicd in both solar flares and planetary magnetospheres(Ambrosiano er uf. 1988; Mancns, 1988; Schindleret uf., 1988). Weakly ionized gaseslike molecular clouds are resistive plasmas,since free electronsin such gaseshave a low mean flee path for collisions with neutral atomsor molecules. It is thus possible in these clouds to produce resistive electric fields that can accelerate particles (~giel etd., 1987). Eleetmna.dc double layers (Borovsky, 1988) can also be viewed as manifestations of finite resistivity, although hem the resistivity is due to plasma collective effects, and is temmd anomalous.

d. Particle drifts As mentioned above, a !ransverseelectric field can accelerate particles when comW with a panicle drift in the same direction. So here we write some of h drifb
that thargcd particles are subject to. These are all derived from the Lorentz fome by averaging over the gyromotion, and they therefore provide no new information, 1. E x B drift (same direction for both charge species):
VEg=C .

(Ex B) 2

(11)

We include this drift for rcfcrcnce even thoug1! it is not useful for particle acceleration, since the drift is perpendicular to both E and B. This drif? enables the convection of a neutral plasma acrossa magnetic field, as long as it has sufficient polarization charge to produce E. This equation is effectively the inverse of cquat.ion(9) for tie convective electric field. 2. Grad-B drift (opposite directions for+ and - charges): v@B

A(Bx

VB).

(12)

This is the drift most commonly invo1? for tmnsverscacceleration. cd 3. Curvature drill (opposite directiom~for + and - charges):
(13)

(14)
This is the gcnend form of the drift for anycxtemal force. Any of drifts 2,3, or 4 arc useful for particle w.ccleration in tiw existence of a transverseelectric field. This is WCbasisfor drifi acceferufion, at shocksand elsewhere (see 5.c). 5. APPLICATIONS We now consider some straightforward applications of the general physics.

a Mirrors and Fermi acceleration

Fermi acceleration is one of rhe most wideiy usedconcepfsin astrophysics. On its basic icvei, it is simpiy the successivereflection of charged pardcies by !nagnetic rnimors,each reflection resulting in the gain or lossof energy by the particie. But we know from our fmstrations with laboratory confinement that magnetic minors am rover perfect! SOwc should examine the physicsof particie reflection more cioseiy. Firstly, a magnetic mimer is an enhancementin the iocal fieid strength that nMects some parlicles by meansof the Lorcntz force. In the iimit of small gyroradius, the motion of a particle in a nonuniform, but time-stationary magnetic field is @zvemcdby the adiabatic invariant p = m v 12/23 and the total kinetic energy K =rn ~, /2 + @ @ is the direction along the iocai magnetic fieid). The motion is illustrated m F@ure 1 for the caseof a particle in a cylindrical flux tube trapped between stationary minors producedby hoop cum-nts.
5.0

-59

Fig. 1. A charqcd pmticlc with a pitch&tgic of 60 is trapped in a flux tube COnWklcd by slatiormy hoop mm?nts producing a Iicid enhancementof a [actor 4 t?lcgrcy Iinc is the field pmlilc sca.lcd10 its minimum ml mn~imurrl. rhc solid iinc IS the pmjCUtiOn 01Ih: p::niclc Miijccmrv ori t.twY-I i-)[m, w:lcfcA ;0 qC &.-:~::~[, ~: L% magncuc ficlu. i nc arrows iilusmuc A i.hatlhcx velocity before and atlcr mflcclion is the same,

In a time-stationary magnetic Iicld, bothK and~ arc invarian~ if the particle gyroradiusis small compared to tie lengrh over which the field changes. As the magnetic field seenby tie particle increases,# remains constant w v increases. To -Oand keep K constant,v=decreases. If fhe minor is srrongenough, eventu~ y VXthe panicle reflccrs. Clearly, W condition for the panicle to reflect is QQ <hl, (15)

(r

VJ-J

~mh

where VZO v ~ arc the values at the minimum field. This equation establislwsa and nwimrun inioh parallel velocity, or anrinim.umpitchangle for rrflccrion. For a mimx ratio of 4, this fins-cone pitchangle is 30=. In a flux tube wifh moving mirrors (Figure 2), the situation is only slightly more complex. In this caseK is not constant becausethe field is not time-stationary. As before, v~ increasesas the particle moves into the increasing field. But while the particle is nearly stationary in x, the moving mirmr causesthe locall? to rise, increasingv stiU further. In o~er words, the particle is accelerated by the inductive electric field while it is stationary since thcm is a local dB@. As rhe particle returnsto the backgmmd field, its increasedv~ is converted to an increasedv~, while v~ returnsto its original value (Gisler and Lemons 1990).
5.9

101

I #

-5.9 -5.0 x

Fig. 2. A charged pmticlc with a pitchangle of 60 is trapped in a flux tube constrictedby approaching hoop currents pruducing a fickl enhancementof it factor 4, The two grcy lines representthe frcld profile at the stan of the calculation (outer profile) and at the time of particle reflection (imer profile), The arrows illustrate that thcx velocity after reflection is greater than bcfom reflection.

tion of minors along a flux tube moving in different directions, a particle will more approaching enmunms thart receding ones, and the particle gains energy on average. This issecond-order, or stochastic Fermi acceleration fFermi, 1949). If the mirrors converge, then all encountersam approaching, and this is jlrst-order Fermi acceleration (Femi, 1954). In either case, there is a firm limit to he process. Since the pitchangle always decreaseswith increasing energy, eventually the particle is boostedinto the losscone of the mimer and cannot be accelerated fur!~er without pitchangle scattering. This limit is such that most particles do not boost their energies by factors of more than a few for a minor ratio of 4 (such as would be found in a strong shock, for example). Particles with very high initial pitchzmglesare the best candidatesfor strong accderatiom Perhapsthe most interesting result of first-order Fermi acceleraticmin a trap is the division of the input distribution into fragments, according to the number of particle reflections. Since a particle is either reflected ~r not at a given encounter, depending on ils pitchangle at minimum B, particles that are very close neighbors in initial conditions can become widely sepamtedin the output phasespace. This rigid sorting can produce severedistortions in the output distribution fimction, and may contribute to the production of a suprathenml tail, as strewn in the next sectiom

expiencc

b. Results of first-order Fermi acceleration in a curved trap at a perpendicular

shock.

As an illustration of how test-pmicle calculations in collapsing magnetic traps (as illustrated in the txeviows Secxion)can ix armlied to Fermi acceleration. Gisler and lemons (1990) ~xamined the geometry sho-~ in Figure 3.

Fig. Id advect into a quasipmpendicularshock, as in this cartoon of a bow shoe c, a successionof rna~ctic traps is formed. The uaps are curved, so that the mimx velocities can become arbitrarily high as rhe Uaps close.

The magnetic tmps fomnedunder these circumstance are similar to the case illustrated in Figure 2, except that the minur speedsare not constant in time, but reach arbitrarily high values as the trap close. This gives a very strongdepmdence on the t!!e hut mirror encounter experienced by the particle, enhancing the rigid sating mentioned in the previous Section. Such a trap can be effective at extracting a small number of particles out of an upstream thenrtal distribution into a suprather ma! ~nil(SCC Figure 4). 71-ICSCmathcnnal paniclc$ can be fi,r!!cr zcc~icra[cd hy a w

;crmi process only If lhcy undcr& piwhanplc sr;urcring tirs[. (% thcv m:ly k
Il!flhcr ;Kxm:>xro!:dI)y o[hcr mc[.hnnisms

numbt

r of particles

100.

10 rd

1 1.0E4

1.oE-3

1.OE-2

1.OE-1

1.OE+O

kinetic energy fig. 4. The input pardclc disuibution to a curved tmp (filled circles) is a Maxwellian. The output distribution (open circles) is mildly heated and grossly distorted, with 5% of the particles in a non-MaxweUian suprathcnnal tail. The dashedline is a Maxwellian that has the same energy moment as the output distribution.

c. Drift acceleration
Drift acceleration can occur when a particle drift is in the same direetion as a Uansvcmeelectric Iicld. The best known example or rh.isis shock drift aecelemtion (Anagncstopoulos er al., 1988; Burgess, 1987; Chiuch, 1988; Chiueh, 1989; Decker, 1988; Krauss-Varban and Wu, 1989), bul it can occur al other interfaces as well. Egum 5 i!lustra[es t.hcgeometry. -

d===

x ion drift

shock Fi

direction

1 VB

5. Gcomcny of shock dnh accclcrtmonat a perpendicular shock.

With B in the direction shown, the drift direction for posilivc ions is inlo the page, vhicl] i:; :Iic .wmc direction as the corncc[ivc clcwic field E. Both posilivc :al; ncg;uiw charge spccicsgain cticigy through drift tit th:s sil~~k Cinc? u13*v i:; Iwlsi!ivc tor Ix)ll), If 11 is in lhc mllcr dirccli(ln. Ml] F. :IIId Y ;irc (IU1 01!11(p;lj:c. :u!d iiytiin ltil[b ~pi:cic:,g;lil] ~n~rgv fhc maximum energy gain Possihlc in shock drift accclcr~tion is rclalcd 10

the wansvcrscdimension of the shock, The principal diffcrcncc belwccn shocksin the solar syslcm and shocksof interest m rixlio wonomcrs is Lhatthe Iaucr have immcn.sclygreater scales. Hcncc astrophysicalshocksarc rcgmdcd M very promising candidatesfor the sites w which relativistic pm.iclcs am accclcratcd. Drift accclcrauondoesnot occur m strictly parallel shocks, while Fermi acceleration can occur al bolh pamllcl and pcrpcndicuku shocks. In gencml bm.htypes of acceleration should be included.

Diflwive

d. Acceleration at shocks: applications shock acceleration (Bcrczinsky and Ptuskin, 1989; Ellison and Mdbius,
1987: Jokipii, 1987: Kirk, 1988: Kirk and Schncidcr, 1987; Vdlk and Bicnnann, 1988; Webb, 1987) is no[ a scpara[cmechanism in its own ngh~ but a method of calculating firw-order Fermi acceleration at shocks. An extensive mvicw is given by Blandford and Eich.lcr( 1987). As tic name suggests,it usesa dit thsion approximation.In h...simplcsl form, it works as follows. A delta function distribution of cncrgctic particles is advcctcd into a shock. The individual particle speed is much greater than the advcction speed, but the particles arc statistically trappxt by scattering off hydromagnc[ic waves in M flow. The velocity of the scattering centers is grmcr upsmxtm than downstream of the shock, so there is a frame in which the scattcnngccmcrs me unifonnl y converging. The scattering ccntcrs arc assumedto Meet the particles and scat[crtheir pitchanglcs so that the limit discussedalmve in section 4.a for ordimuy Fermi acceleration is held not to apply. Them is assumedto be a finite probability for panicle escapeat each cncoumcr, yielding the power-law distribution asdiscussedin section 3. This mctttod has been applied to the Earthsbow shock (many authors), supernovaremnant shocks(many authors), solar wind termination shocks (Pc@ietcr and Moraal, 1988), and galactic wind termination shocks (Jokipii and .MortlU, 1987). Ofpanicular intmcst m radio astnmomcrtrare interplanetary spiral shocks(@We, 1989; Moussaset uf., 1987), where relativistic electrons up to 7 MeV have &en seen. It must he noted that the diffision approximation breaks down if the fluid speedM comparable to the particle speed (Kinkand Schneider 1988), so itcannot be used for acceleration of particles out of a tiennat distribution at moderate Mach numbers. It also bmks down for finite amplitude perturbations in the field (Ostmwski 1988), In addilion to first-order Fermi and drift accclcration, other mechanismsfor accelerating particles have been consideredto exist at shocks, One is the secondordcr Fcnni prouss m the disturbed field on either side of a quasiparallcl shock, or downstreamof a quasipcrpcndicular shock (Ellison and Jones, 1988; Dtige et d., 1987). Another is the electrostatic heating of clcctrona by the cross-shock ptentird (EIlison and Jones, !988).

e. Other roles for Fermi acceleration

Firsl-order Fermi accdcration is not limited to shocks, It mcwrs in any converging flow like accretion flows [Schncidcr and Bogdan, 1989; Webb and Bogdm, 1987; Katz and Smith 1988), or in collapsing molecular clouds (Dogicl et uf , 1987; Richardsonand Wolfcndalc, 198W, Second-order (or stochastic) Fermi accdcmtion is invoked in shciwIluws (WCbb, 1989), comets (Bartmsa, 1989; Gombosi, 1988; Gombosi et ul,, 19119), CL% J (Eilck and Shore, 1989), and solar flares (Stcinachcret U1,, 19WI; Smith and Brccht, 19119),for example,

and is held in an accelerating Iicld associmcdwith tic wave. Rcsonam-panicle accelcmtion has rcccntly been applied to comets (Pncc and Lee, 1988), to the solar commt (deLaBeaujardiLm and Zweibcl, 1989), and to solar flares (Miller and Ramaty, 1989; Ohsawa and Sakai, 1987; Ohsawa and Sakai, 1988). notrnade, energetic. High energy gamma rays interacting with intense magnetic fields can spontarmusly generate pairs of energetic psitrons and ckxrons in active galactic nuclei (Lightman and Zdziarski 1987) or in pulsars(Sul.kancnand Gislcr, in preparation). Vc~ high energy protons generated in active ga!actic nuclei can ccdlidc inelastically with cold matter, producin$ gamma rdys that can scatteroff other photons to make uhrarelativistic e]cctrons (Slkora et al., 1987: Sikora and Shlosman 1989: Stanev and Vankov 1989), or producing high energy neutronsthat can tmvcl long distancesbefore they decay or cdidc inelastically, making tdgh energy electrons far away fmm the primary energy source(Sikora et al., 19S9]. & SOLAR FLARES:

Lmc cncrgctic particles may be born,

Exotic processes

,MICR&OSM .%

R PARTICLE ACCELERATION

Bccauscso many of the mcchitnismstim cdn~dcmd for panicle acceleration in astrophysicsarc rcprcsentcd,al~ough at % Icr sca@in the solak3ystem, it is o useful for radio astronomersto acquaint thcm~vcswith solar physics and space ~ys&6data. An cxcellcnt example is the solar hare, schematically illustrated in

MHDShork

Elrc

Fig. (5. A cartoon of a solar flare cvcm. Scc tc~t for dcscriwiqr

from tic rcconncclion site. on bm.hopen and closed field Iincs. Electrons in the downward-propagating beams radiate a burstof microwaves in the constricting field, then a burstof X-rays as they hit the denserplasma below. The heated plasma of the chromosphcrethen expandsup the flux tubes, ciectrons first, creating an electrostatic field that acceleratesions upward. These accelerated ions have an energy given by the electrostatic ptcntial, and hence ions of diffcrcru massesmove M different sgnxxis.Relative streamingbetween the different ion spccicsdrives an instability Lhat decelerates ions and acceleratesheavy ions up to the initial speedsof the light light ions. In this way, Ilarc-produced heavy ions arc seen at energies up to -1 Ml GeV. Fermi and drift accelerationoccur in tic shock that propagatesaway from the mxxmnectionsite. This picture is gradual]y Iming picccd together (WingIec 1989; Benz, 1987; Benz and Smith, 1987; Smith and Brcch~ 1988; Stcinacherer d., 1988; Miller and Ramaly 1989), with the help of high-resolution data on the obsmables. 7. PARTICLE ACCELERATION IN SPIRAL GALAXIES T& subject of Ibis workshop being radio continuum emission from spiral galaxies, I now attempt to list some of the sitesand mechanismsthat might be expected to contribute 10the population ofcncrgetic elccwons in spiral arms (Table 11[). Them is no strongevidcncc that all these electrons come from a single source, and since all of the sites listed here can be argued as possible sites for accclcration, it is msonablc to suppxe that many of thcm do actually contribute in some measure. TABLE III Sites and mechanismsfor particle acceleration in spiral galaxies

supernova remnant shocks neutron star sutiaccs neutmrt star magnetospheres cloud mllisions cloud collapses density waves accretion hot-star (O,B) winds stellar wind termination shocks Stellar flares gakt~c wind termination shock galactlc l!ams

shock* electrostatic, electrodynamics electrodynamlc, reconnection shock Fermi, reconnection, shock Fermi, drift, mcmnection Fermi, recmtncction, shock rcconncction, shock shock reconnection, electrostatic, shock shock rcwnncction, electrostatic, shock

(shock is hcm an abbreviation for Fcnni, drift, electrostatic)

I have put thesein somewhat arbitrary order, but influcm ed by Fig 1 of ] tCndCd plaCCthe primary energetic ,sOurccs to r!tt.hctop of the ]is~ going down to (mostly) maccclcration sites. The odcr is certainly arguable. Most. but nol all, of the sites arc associatedwith a young stellar population and the encrgctlc pitrticlcs resulting from thcm should thcrcforc reflect the diminution of star formation. All of the mechanismsshown here arc opcrab]c to some extent in the solar systcm, wtd analysis of existing in situ data great] y cnhanccs our understanding d how Ihcsc pnrxxww might rmc:m In Icmotc ~yslrms,
DUriC ( ]988)

8. FUTURE DIRECTIONS IN PARTICLE ACCELERATI(lN

We know hat astrophysicalshocksare strongly modified by tic prcscnccof cosmic rays, and that the diffusive approximation is not adequate for the extraction problcm, or for shockswith substantial field perturbations. Yc[ conventional diffusive shock accclerat.ionm unmodified shocksis still widely used. We also know that Lhccxuactkm of elcctmns from a thcnmd population is a vastly different problcm from the cxwaction of ions. Yet theories developed for onc am widely used to draw conclusionsaoout the other, or a simple proportionality}is assumed. So what needs to be done? Mom explicit particle trajectories in moderating field configurations starting with thcrmd particles. These should bc full orbit calculations, and not guiding-center approaches.so Umt the breaking of adiabatic invariants and pitchanglc scattering by steep field gradients can bc obsmed. Beyond thah we need self-consistent 3D simulations of shocks, trconncction events, plasma expansionsand collapses. These should b elcctmmagnctic, rchttivistic simulations with particle ions and part.iclcelectrons. I wish to acknowledge helpful discussionswith Martin Sulkancn iind Ncb Dune.

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