Introduction

This page provides notes on heat transfer that may be useful to mechanical engineers. The subject is very complicated and any user who requires accurate heat transfer values is advised to refer to quality reference documents or use specialised software. When a hot surface us surrounded by an area which is colder energy in the form of heat will be transferred from the hot surface to the cooler area. The rate of this transfer is depended on the temperature difference and the process will continue until both the surface and the surroundings are at the same temperature. This process in called heat transfer and takes place by one or more of the following methods Conduction Convection Radiation Conduction takes place in solids, liquids, and gases. Solids offer the least resistance to transfer of heat by conduction. Conduction requires physical contact between material through which the heat is transferred. A materials temperature is related to the motion of the constituent molecules. The conduction process involves the molecule moving at higher velocities transferring their kinetic energy to the adjacent molecures which have lower kinetic energy. Convection results in a gas or liquid. The fluid adjacent to a hot surface heats up as a result of conduction. The density of this fluid is reduced and it therefore rises to be replaced by a colder fluid of higher density. This process continues resulting in convective flow producing an enhanced transfer of heat throughout the fluid. The transfer of heat energy by radiation can occur in a vacuum , unlike conduction and convection. Heat radiation is the same form of wave energy transfer as light, radio, and x-ray wave energy. The rate of emmission of heat energy is related to the temperature difference, the distance between the surfaces, and the emissivity of the surfaces. Bright reflective surfaces have the lowest emissivity values. Notes on thermal insulation systems are found on webpage.Thermal Insulation

Symbols Q = Heat Flow Rate (W ) t 1 = inside(hot)temperature,( K ) t S1 = inside surface (hot)temperature,( K ) t 2 = outside(cooler)temperature,( K ) t S1 = outside surface (cooler)temperature,( K ) 2 A = Area,( m ) -2 -1 U = Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient, ( W m K ) -1 R = Thermal Resistance, ( W .K ) Qr = Radiated transferred energy (W) Qco = Conducted transferred energy (W) Qcv = Convective transferred energy (W) T1 = Temperature or radiating body (K) T2 Temperature or Suroundings (K) 2 A1 = Area of Radiating surface (m ) 2 A2 =Area of Receiving surface (m ) e1 = Emissivity of Radiating surface e2 = Emissivity of Surroundings -8 = Stefan Boltzman constant = 5,673 x 10 W -2 -4 m K 3 = fluid density (kg / m ) = fluid viscosity (kg / m.s) = coeff. of vol expansion (1 /K) = Temperature difference (k) c = specific heat (J/kg.K ) a = velocity of Sound (m/s) 2 h = heat transfer coefficient (W /m K) k = Thermal conductivity (W/mK) v = Fluid velocity (m/s) L = characteristic dimension 2 g = accelaration due to gravity (m/s )

Heat Transfer by Conduction

dQco = kA(-dt/dx) Qco = (k.A /x). (t 1-t 2) U = k/x Therefore Q = U.A(t 1-t 2) Thermal resistance R = 1 / U.A

The heat has to pass through the surface layers on both sides of the wall<b< p=""> </b<>

q = A.h s1(t s1 - t 1) = k.A(t 1 -t 2) / x = Ah s2(t 2 -t s2) U = 1 / (1/h s1 + x/ k + 1/ h s2 ) R = 1/ A.h s1 + 1/ A.h s2 + x/ A.k = R s1 + R s2 + R

Table Showing Various values for k at 20 C
o

Metal Aluminium Antimony Beryllium Brass Cadmium Cobalt Constantan Copper Gold Iridium Cast Iron Pure Iron Wr't Iron Lead Magnesium Molybdenum Monel Nickel Platinum Silver C.Steel St.Steel Tin Zinc Plastics Acrylic Nylon 6

k=Wm-1K1

Misc.solids Asphalt Bitumen Br'ze Block Brickwork Brick-Dense Carbon Conc-LD Conc-MD Conc-HD Firebrick Glass Glass -Boro. Ice Limestone Mica Cement Parafin Wax Porcelain Sand Insulation Balsa Straw-Comp Cotton Wool Felt

k =Wm-1K-1 1.26 0.17 0.15 0.6 1.6 1.7 0.2 0.5 1.5 1.09 1.05 1.3 2.18 1.1 0.75 1.01 0.25 1.05 0.06

Liquids Benzene Carb Tet'ide Acetone Ether Glycerol Kerosene Mercury Methanol Machine Oil Water Sodium

k= Wm1 -1 K 0.16 0.11 0.16 0.14 0.28 0.15 8 0.21 0.15 0.58 84 k= Wm 1 K -1 0.024 0.022 0.016 0.015 0.023 0.142 0.168 0.030 0.024 0.024 0.016

237 18.5 218 110 92 69 22 398 315 147 55 80.3 59 35.2 156 138 26 90.5 73 427 50 25 67 113

Gases Air Ammonia Argon Carbon Dio Carbon Mon Helium

k=Wm-1K-1 Hydrogen 0.048 Methane 0.09 0.029 0.04 0.04(20o C 0.034 Nitrogen Oxygen Water Vap.

Polystyrene-Exp'd 0.03 Glass Wool Kapok

0.2 0.25;

Polythene High 0.5 Den PTFE PVC 0.25 0.19

Magnesia Plywood Rock Wool Sawdust Slag Wool Wood Sheeps Wool Cellulose

0.07 0.13 0.045 0.06 0.042 0.13 0.038 0.039

Heat Transfer by Radiation

Q r = radiated energy (W) T 1 = Temperature or radiating body (K) T 2 Temperature or Suroundings (K) 2 A 1 = Area of Radiating surface (m ) 2 A 2 =Area of Receiving surface (m ) e 1 = Emissivity of Radiating surface e 2 = Emissivity of Surroundings -8 -2 -4 = Stefan Boltzman constant = 5,673 x 10 W m K -2 -1 hr = heat Transfer coefficient for radiation (Wm K ) Heat radiation from a body to the surroundings

Q r = e1 (T1 - T2 ) A1
Heat radiation including the effect of the surroundings

Q r = ( e1 T1 - e2T2 ) A1
Now the heat transfer using the heat transfer coefficient =

Q r = h r A 1 ( T 1 - T 2 ) therefore h r = e 1 (T 1 + T 2 )( T 1 + T 2 )
Emissivity Values Refer to link Emissivity Values for better table Surface Material Aluminium-Oxidised Aluminium-Polished Aluminium anodised Aluminium rough Asbestos Board Black Body -Matt Brass -Dull Brass- Polished Emmissity 0.11 0.05 0.77 0.07 0.94 1.00 0.22 0.03 Surface Material Tile Water Wood-Oak Paint Paper Plastics Rubber-Nat_Hard Rubber _Nat_Soft Emmissity 0.97 0.95 0.9 0.96 0.93 0.91 Av 0.91 0.86

Brick -Dark Concrete Copper-Oxidised Copper -Polished Glass Plaster

0.9 0.85 0.87 0.04 0.92 0.98

Steel_Oxidised Steel Polished St.Steel-Weathered St.Steel-Polished Steel Galv. Old Steel Galv new

0.79 0.07 0.85 0.15 0.88 0.23

Heat Transfer by Convection

Convective heat transfer occurs between a moving fluid and a solid surface. The rate of convective heat transfer between a surface and a fluid is given by the Newtons Law of Cooling;

The symbols involved in convective heat transfer are listed below

The dimensionless groups involve in convective heat transfer are listed below

Figures identifying characteristic Dimension L It is customary to express the convection coefficient (average or local), in a non-dimensional form called the Nusselt Number. Natural convection Nu = C(Gr.Pr) C and n are tabled below Note: Convection heat transfer values are very specific to the geometry of the surface and the heat transfer conditions - These example equations are very general in nature and should not be used for serious calcs. The links below provide much safer equations.. Surface Vertical Plates/Cylinders Horizontal Pipes Horizontal Plates Heated Face up or Cooled Face Down Horizontal Plates Heated Face up or Cooled Face Down Forced Convection (Gr.Pr) 10 to 10 10 to 10 10 to 10
5 7 5 3 9 4 9 12 9 7 10 10 n

C 0.59 0.13 0.53 0.54 0.14 0.27

n 0.25 0.33 0.25 0.25 0.33 0.25

10 to 2 x 10

2 x10 to 3 x10 3 x10 to 3 x10

Laminar flow over Plate Fully Developed pipe flow

Nu = 0,664(Re)

1/2

(Pr)

1/3

Nu = 3,66 + 0,0866(D/L)Re.Pr / (1+0.04[D / L(Re.Pr)] Nu = 0,036Pr

0.4 1/3

2/3

Turbulent Flow Over Flat Plate Turbulent Flow In Pipe

Re

0.8

Nu = 0,023Pr

Re

0.8

D = Diameter, L = Length, mean film temperature properties assumed Typical Values of Heat Transfer Coefficient h = W.m K
-2 -1

Free Convection Over Various Shape - Air 2 - 23 Free Convection Over Various Shape - Water 300 - 1700 Turbulent Convection Over Various Shape and through tubes - Air 6 - 1400 Turbulent Convection Over Various Shape and through tubes - Water 1100 - 9000

Heat Exchangers

Heat exchangers normally transfer energy from a hot fluid to a colder fluid.

The energy in = The energy out.

If the fluids are the same with the same specific heat. The mass flowrate x the temp drop of the hot fluid = the mass flow rate x the temp rise of the cold fluid.

Typical Values for Overall Heat transfer U are

Plate Heat Exchanger, liquid to liquid U range 1000 > 4000 W. m. K.

-2

-1 -2 -1

Shell and Tube, liquid inside and outside tubes U range150 > 1200 W. m. K. . -2 -1 Spiral Heat Exchanger, liquid to liquid U range 700 > 2500 W. m. K.